美国文学论文英文版2500字体
美国文学论文英文版2500字体
论《洛丽塔》中纳博科夫的现代意识 (文化冲突)The Dispiriting Incompatibility of European and American CulturesThroughout Lolita, the interactions between European and American cultures result in perpetual misunderstandings and Charlotte Haze, an American, is drawn to the sophistication and worldliness of Humbert, a E She eagerly accepts Humbert not so much because of who he is, but because she is charmed by what she sees as the glamour and intellect of Humbert’s Humbert has no such reverence for C He openly mocks the superficiality and transience of American culture, and he views Charlotte as nothing but a simple-minded However, he adores every one of Lolita’s vulgarities and chronicles every detail of his tour of America—he enjoys the possibilities for freedom along the open American He eventually admits that he has defiled the country rather than the other way Though Humbert and Lolita develop their own version of peace as they travel together, their union is clearly not based on understanding or Lolita cannot comprehend the depth of Humbert’s devotion, which he overtly links to art, history, and culture, and Humbert will never truly recognize Lolita’s unwillingness to let him sophisticate Eventually, Lolita leaves Humbert for the American Quilty, who does not bore her with high culture or grand 偶然和无常纳博科夫的《洛丽塔》中的混沌 (心里和心理学方面的混乱)The Inadequacy of PsychiatryHumbert’s passion for Lolita defies easy psychological analysis, and throughout Lolita Humbert mocks psychiatry’s tendency toward simplistic, logical In the foreword to Lolita, John Ray, J, PD, claims that Humbert’s tale will be of great interest to psychiatry, but throughout his memoir Humbert does his best to discredit the entire field of study, heaping the most scorn on Freudian For example, he enjoys lying to the psychiatrists at the He reports mockingly that Pratt, the headmistress of Lolita’s school, diagnoses Lolita as sexually immature, wholly unaware that she actually has an overly active sex life with her By undermining the authority and logic of the psychiatric field, Nabokov demands that readers view Humbert as a unique and deeply flawed human being, but not an insane Humbert further thwarts efforts of scientific categorization by constantly describing his feelings for Lolita as an enchantment or spell, closer to magic than to He tries to prove that his love is not a mental disease but an enormous, strange, and uncontrollable emotion that resists easy Nabokov himself was deeply critical of psychiatry, and Lolita is, in a way, an attack on the 以《洛丽塔》为例分析文学内在价值与社会道德规范的冲突解析《洛丽塔》中主人公的悲剧命运论《洛丽塔》的悲剧意义(这段3个主题都有相关,但是不详细)Humbert and Lolita are both exiles, and, alienated from the societies with which they are familiar, they find themselves in ambiguous moral territory where the old rules seem not to Humbert chooses exile and comes willingly from Europe to America, while Lolita is forced into exile when Charlotte She becomes detached from her familiar community of Ramsdale and goes on the road with H Together, they move constantly and belong to no single fixed The tourists Humbert and Lolita meet on the road are similarly transient, belonging to a generic America rather than to a specific In open, unfamiliar territory, Humbert and Lolita form their own set of rules, where normal sexual and familial relationships become twisted and Both Humbert and Lolita have become so disconnected from ordinary society that neither can fully recognize how morally depraved their actions Humbert cannot see his own monstrosity, and Lolita shows only occasional awareness of herself of a Though Humbert sweeps Lolita away so that they can find a measure of freedom, their exile ultimately traps Lolita is bound to Humbert because she has nowhere else to go, and though Humbert dreams of leaving America with Lolita, he eventually accepts that he will stay in America until he Though each of them undergoes one final exile, Lolita to Dick Schiller and Humbert to prison, it is clear that they are first and foremost exiled from their own selves, an exile so total that they could never return to their original places in the worlds they once Exile in L
说说一般情况:一、论文的题目要求 1、论文题目以最恰当、最简明的词语反映论文中最重要的特定内容的逻辑组合,并有助于选定关键词和编制目录 2、论文题目不能用缩略词、首字母缩略词、字符、代号和公式等 3、论文题目一般不超过20个字 4、论文题目语义未尽可用副标题补充说明二、论文摘要的要求 应具有独立性和自含性,是一篇完整的短文,它说明论文的主要思想、结构框架,或研究工作的目的、实验方法、结果和最终结论 三、论文的关键词 每篇论文必须选中3--5个中、英文关键词,以显著的字符另起一行,排在其对应摘要的左下方,中文关键词尽可能用《汉语主题词表》等词表提到的规范词四、论文的字体及字号规格 1、英文统一使用Microsoft Word软件中的Times New Roman字体,所用中文使用“宋体”字体 2、内封大标题使用“粗体三号字”,内封其他信息使用“粗体四号字” 3、正文大标题使用“粗体小三号字”,章节标题使用“粗体四号字” 4、正文使用“小四号字”,正文中成段的引文使用“五号字”
一、基本格式:论文只能打印在每页纸的一面上,不得打印在正反面上。论文纸的大小尺寸为a4纸打印。侧面装订。二、题名页:论文题名页上打印格式基本相近,中、英文对照,中文题目页在第一页,英文题目页在第二页。一般由顶部往下三分之一页处打印论文题目,论文题目都用大写字母,下隔八行打印论文调查者姓名、所属电大,再下隔八行视实际情况打上提交日期xx年xx月xx日以及课程名称:论文项目设计上述各项内容都应打印在论文题名页的中间部位。三、摘要及关键词页摘要及关键词页上打印格式同论文题名页,中、英文对照,中文题目页在上,英文题目页在下。一般根据提要的内容多少安排打印。中文题目摘要采用宋体一号,加粗,摘要正文部分采用宋体,小四号。关键字题目部分采用宋体三号,加粗,关键字短语部分采用宋体,小四号。英文题目摘要采用times new roman字体,字号为一号,加粗,摘要正文部分采用times new roman字体,字号为小四。四、致谢页学员可以自选致谢页,一般不要求写中文。英文大标题采用times new roman字体,字号为一号,加粗,正文部分采用times new roman字体,字号为小四。五、目录页英文大标题采用times new roman字体,字号为一号,加粗,小标题部分统一采用times new roman字体,字号为三号,加粗。注意在右方注明对应的页号,中间虚线连接。六、正文页论文的正文需隔行打印,正文采用times new roman字体,字号为小四。大标题为times new roman字体,字号为三号、加粗字。副标题为times new roman字体,字号为三号、加粗。七、尾注、参考文献页与附录页尾注、参考文献页与附录页(大标题采用times new roman字体,字号为一号,加粗)正文部分如尾注、参考文献目录与附录可不必隔行打印,字体为times new roman小四。参考文献按引用文献的顺序,列于论文末。1、M——专著格式:[序号]主要责任者(注:两个责任者之间用逗号隔开)文献题名[文献类型标识]出版地:出版者,出版年起止页码示例:[1]刘小龙电视艺术美学[M]北京:中国广播电视出版社,22-2、C——析出文献格式:[序号]析出文献主要责任者(注:两个责任者之间用逗号隔开)析出文献题名[A]原文献主要责任者原文献题名[C]出版地:出版者,出版年析出文献起止页码(如文内已列明,则省略)例如:[1][英]穆尔电影理论的结构[A]瞿涛电影学文集[C]北京:人民出版社,34-3、N——报纸文章格式:[序号]主要责任者文献题名[N]报纸名,出版日期(版次)例如:[1]周济情系教育 办好教育[N]中国教育报,2004-1-29(1)4、J——期刊文章格式:[序号]主要责任者文献题名[J]刊名,出版年,卷(期):起址页码例如:[9]李海音乐传播的文化思考[J]当代传播,2004,(10):26-5、D——学位论文格式:[序号]主要责任者文献题名[D]保管地:保管单位,完成年起止页码例如:[1]邓友论电视艺术的美学性[D]北京:北京广播学院,17-6、R——报告格式:[序号] 报告作者题名[R]保存地点年份7、S——标准格式:[序号] 标准代号,标准名称[S]出版地:出版者,出版年8、P——专利格式:[序号] 专利所有者专利题名[P]专利国别:专利号,发布日期9、Z——各种未定义文献格式:[序号]主要责任者文献题名[Z]出版地:出版者,出版年(资料来源:中国论文网http:///)
一、标题 一篇较长的英语论文(如英语毕业论文)一般都需要标题页,其书写格式如下:第一行标题与打印纸顶端的距离约为打印纸全长的三分之一,与下行(通常为by,居中)的距离则为5cm,第三、第四行分别为作者姓名及日期(均居中)。 如果该篇英语论文是学生针对某门课程而写,则在作者姓名与日期之间还需分别打上教师学衔及其姓名(如:D/PCPrager)及本门课程的编号或名称(如:English 734或British Novel)。打印时,如无特殊要求,每一行均需double space,即隔行打印,行距约为6cm(论文其他部分行距同此)。 二、提纲 英语论文提纲页包括论题句及提纲本身,其规范格式如下:先在第一行(与打印纸顶端的距离仍为5cm左右)的始端打上 Thesis 一词及冒号,空一格后再打论题句,回行时左边须与论题句的第一个字母上下对齐。 主要纲目以大写罗马数字标出,次要纲目则依次用大写英文字母、阿拉伯数字和小写英文字母标出。各数字或字母后均为一句点,空出一格后再打该项内容的第一个字母;处于同一等级的纲目,其上下行左边必须对齐。 需要注意的是,同等重要的纲目必须是两个以上,即:有Ⅰ应有Ⅱ,有A应有B,以此类推。如果英文论文提纲较长,需两页纸,则第二页须在右上角用小写罗马数字标出页码,即ii(第一页无需标页码)。 三、摘要 1、英文摘要是应用符合英文语法的文字语言,提供论文内容梗概为目的的短文。(内容基本与中文摘要相同,但不用完全逐句对应)。 2、英文题目、摘要、关键词自成一页(1页即可),放在中文摘要页之后。 3、英文字体与行间距: 统一使用“西文字体”中的“Times New Roman”,5倍行间距。 4、英文题目: 使用三号字加粗。 5、英文摘要: “Absract”顶格,使用四号字,并加粗。 英文摘要具体内容使用四号字。 6、英文关键词: “Key Words”顶格,使用四号字并加粗。 四、正文 有标题页和提纲页的英语论文,其正文第一页的规范格式为:论文标题居中,其位置距打印纸顶端约5cm,距正文第一行约5cm。段首字母须缩进五格,即从第六格打起。 正文第一页不必标页码(但应计算其页数),自第二页起,必须在每页的右上角(即空出第一行,在其后部)打上论文作者的姓,空一格后再用阿拉伯数字标出页码;阿拉伯数字(或其最后一位)应为该行的最后一个空格。 在打印正文时尚需注意标点符号的打印格式,即:句末号(句号、问号及感叹号)后应空两格,其他标点符号后则空一格。 五、文中引述 正确引用作品原文或专家、学者的论述是写好英语论文的重要环节;既要注意引述与论文的有机统一,即其逻辑性,又要注意引述格式 (即英语论文参考文献)的规范性。 引述别人的观点,可以直接引用,也可以间接引用。无论采用何种方式,论文作者必须注明所引文字的作者和出处。美国学术界通行的做法是在引文后以圆括弧形式注明引文作者及出处。 六、文献目录 论文作者在正文之后必须提供论文中全部引文的详细出版情况,即文献目录页。美国高校一般称此页为 Works Cited, 其格式须注意下列几点: 目录页应与正文分开,另页打印,置于正文之后。 目录页应视为英语论文的一页,按论文页码的顺序在其右上角标明论文作者的姓和页码;如果条目较多,不止一页,则第一页不必标出作者姓和页码(但必须计算页数),其余各页仍按顺序标明作者姓和页码。 标题Works Cited与打印纸顶端的距离约为5cm,与第一条目中第一行的距离仍为6cm;各条目之间及各行之间的距离亦为6cm,不必留出更多空白。 各条目内容顺序分别为作者姓、名、作品名、出版社名称、出版地、出版年份及起止页码等;各条目应严格按各作者姓的首字母顺序排列,但不要给各条目编码,也不必将书条与杂志、期刊等条目分列。各条目第一行需顶格打印,回行时均需缩进五格,以将该条目与其他条目区分开来。 英语论文摘要又称文摘,是论文的重要组成部分,它是以提供文献内容梗概为目的,不加评论和补充解释,简明、确切地记述文献重要内容的短文。摘要应具有独立性和自明性,并拥有与文献同等量的主要信息,即不需阅读全文,就可获得重要的信息。 摘要通常置于文题之后,文章之首。在论文发表后,论文摘要常被文献检索系统所收集。英语论文摘要一般为200-300单词,并有与英文摘要表达观点一致的中文摘要与之对应。(内容来源:学术堂)
美国文学论文英文版2500字
American literature refers to written or literary work produced in the area of the United States and Colonial A For more specific discussions of poetry and theater, see Poetry of the United States and Theater in the United SOverviewDuring its early history, America was a series of British colonies on the eastern coast of the present-day United S Therefore, its literary tradition begins as linked to the broader tradition of English However, unique American characteristics and the breadth of its production usually now cause it to be considered a separate path and Colonial literatureSome of the earliest forms of American literature were pamphlets and writings extolling the benefits of the colonies to both a European and colonist John Smith of Jamestown could be considered the first American author with his works: A True Relation of Virginia (1608) and The General Historie of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles (1624) Other writers of this manner included Daniel Denton, Thomas Ashe, William Penn, George Percy, William Strachey, John Hammond, Daniel Coxe, Gabriel Thomas, and John LThe religious disputes that prompted settlement in America were also topics of early A journal written by John Winthrop discussed the religious foundations of the Massachusetts Bay C Edward Winslow also recorded a diary of the first years after the Mayflower's Other religiously influenced writers included Increase Mather and William Bradford, author of the journal published as a History of Plymouth Plantation, 1620– Others like Roger Williams and Nathaniel Ward more fiercely argued state and church Some poetry also Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor are especially Michael Wigglesworth wrote a best-selling poem, The Day of Doom, describing the time of Nicholas Noyes was also known for his doggerel Other early writings described conflicts and interaction with the Indians, as seen in writings by Daniel Gookin, Alexander Whitaker, John Mason, Benjamin Church, and Mary R John Eliot translated the Bible into the Algonquin Jonathan Edwards and Cotton Mather represented the Great Awakening, a religious revival in the early 18th century that asserted strict C Other Puritan and religious writers include Thomas Hooker, Thomas Shepard, Uriah Oakes, John Wise, and Samuel W Less strict and serious writers included Samuel Sewall, Sarah Kemble Knight, and William BThe revolutionary period also contained political writings, including those by colonists Samuel Adams, Josiah Quincy, John Dickinson, and Joseph Galloway, a loyalist to the Two key figures were Benjamin Franklin and Thomas P Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanac and The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin are esteemed works with their wit and influence toward the formation of a budding American Paine's pamphlet Common Sense and The American Crisis writings are seen as playing a key role in influencing the political tone of the During the revolution itself, poems and songs such as "Yankee Doodle" and "Nathan Hale" were Major satirists included John Trumbull and Francis H Philip Morin Freneau also wrote poems about the war's Early US literatureIn the post-war period, The Federalist essays by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay prepresented a historical discussion of government organization and republican Thomas Jefferson's United States Declaration of Independence, his influence on the Constitution, his autobiography, the Notes on the State of Virginia, and the mass of his letters have led to him being considered one of the most talented early American Fisher Ames, James Otis, and Patrick Henry are also valued for their political writings and The first American novel is sometimes considered to be William Hill Brown's The Power of Sympathy (1789) Much of the early literature of the new nation struggled to find a uniquely American European forms and styles were often transferred to new locales and critics often saw them as For example, Wieland and other novels by Charles Brockden Brown (1771-1810) are often seen as imitations of the Gothic novels then being written in EUnique American styleWith the War of 1812 and an increasing desire to produce uniquely American work, a number of key new literary figures appeared, perhaps most prominently Washington Irving, William Cullen Bryant, James Fenimore Cooper, and Edgar Allan P Irving, often considered the first writer to develop a unique American style (although this is debated) wrote humorous works in Salmagundi and the well-known satire A History of New York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker (1809) Bryant wrote early romantic and nature-inspired poetry, which evolved away from their European In 1835, Poe began writing short stories -- including The Masque of the Red Death, The Pit and the Pendulum, The Fall of the House of Usher, and The Murders in the Rue Morgue -- that explore previously hidden levels of human psychology and push the boundaries of fiction toward mystery and Cooper's Leatherstocking tales about Natty Bumppo were popular both in the new country and Humorous writers were also popular and included Seba Smith and Benjamin P Shillaber in New England and Davy Crockett, Augustus Baldwin Longstreet, Johnson J Hooper, Thomas Bangs Thorpe, Joseph G Baldwin, and George Washington Harris writing about the American The New England Brahmins were a group of writers connected to Harvard University and its seat in Cambridge, M The core included James Russell Lowell, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and Oliver Wendell Holmes, SIn 1836, Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), an ex-minister, published a startling nonfiction work called Nature, in which he claimed it was possible to dispense with organized religion and reach a lofty spiritual state by studying and responding to the natural His work influenced not only the writers who gathered around him, forming a movement known as Transcendentalism, but also the public, who heard him Emerson's most gifted fellow-thinker was perhaps Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862), a resolute After living mostly by himself for two years in a cabin by a wooded pond, Thoreau wrote Walden, a book-length memoir that urges resistance to the meddlesome dictates of organized His radical writings express a deep-rooted tendency toward individualism in the American Other writers influenced by Transcendentalism were Bronson Alcott, Margaret Fuller, George Ripley, Orestes Brownson, and Jones VThe political conflict surrounding Abolitionism inspired the writings of William Lloyd Garrison and his paper The Liberator, along with poet John Greenleaf Whittier and Harriet Beecher Stowe in her world-famous Uncle Tom's CIn 1837, the young Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864) collected some of his stories as Twice-Told Tales, a volume rich in symbolism and occult Hawthorne went on to write full-length "romances," quasi-allegorical novels that explore such themes as guilt, pride, and emotional repression in his native New E His masterpiece, The Scarlet Letter, is the stark drama of a woman cast out of her community for committing Hawthorne's fiction had a profound impact on his friend Herman Melville (1819-1891), who first made a name for himself by turning material from his seafaring days into exotic Inspired by Hawthorne's example, Melville went on to write novels rich in philosophical In Moby Dick, an adventurous whaling voyage becomes the vehicle for examining such themes as obsession, the nature of evil, and human struggle against the In another fine work, the short novel Billy Budd, Melville dramatizes the conflicting claims of duty and compassion on board a ship in time of His more profound books sold poorly, and he had been long forgotten by the time of his He was rediscovered in the early decades of the 20th Anti-transcendental works from Melville, Hawthorne, and Poe all comprise the Dark Romanticism subgenre of literature popular during this
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传承与嬗变-----美国浪漫主义文学浅说 浪漫主义思潮于1820年至1860年间在美国盛行。而此时欧洲的浪漫主义思潮已经趋于衰微,逐渐被现实主义思潮所代替。浪漫主义思潮在欧洲各国的发展也不尽相同,美国作为后起之秀对欧洲各国浪漫主义的吸纳表现出综合性的特征。在19世纪初期,英国浪漫主义诗歌曾在美国掀起一阵狂热,但是持续时间较短。20年代末德国浪漫主义思想经斯塔尔夫人、柯勒律治、托马斯�6�1卡莱尔的过滤介绍被美国大学学子视为经典,催生出美国浪漫主义的新生儿超验主义。然而超验主义对散文和诗歌的偏爱、对小说的排斥虽然代表了清教主义的正统思想,却不符合浪漫主义崇尚自由的思想,也无法吸引大众读者。此时随着美国经济的迅速发展,大众读者需要的是轻松、娱乐、想象性的读物,小说是他们的首选。美国作家面临艰难的处境:他们的作品既要拥有大量的读者,又要符合批评界的常识标准——真实。从洛克的经验哲学发展而来的常识哲学使得维护清教传统的美国人越发将事实和想象看成对立的两极,无法调和共存。美国小说家在创作过程中发现。他们无法创造绝对的真实,所以只能借助罗曼司已经获得的想象的诗学许可进行自由的创作。美国小说家对中世纪罗曼司中的爱情故事和超自然现象丝毫不感兴趣,他们唯一需要的是浪漫主义所崇尚的想象力和罗曼司所具有的自由表达想象的特权。浪漫主义时期开始于十八世纪末,到内战爆发为止,是美国文学史上最重要的时期。华盛顿�6�1欧文出版的《见闻札记》标志着美国文学的开端,惠特曼的《草叶集》[2、3、4]是浪漫主义时期文学的压卷之作。浪漫主义时期的文学是美国文学的繁荣时期,所以也称为“美国的文艺复兴。” 19世纪初,美国完全摆脱了对英国的依赖,以独立国家的身份进入世界政治舞台。这时期作家们跟英国浪漫主义作家一样,强调文学的想象力和感情色彩,反对古典主义的形式和观点,歌颂大自然,崇尚个人与普通人的思想感情,并且寻根问祖发幽古思情。美国社会的发展哺育了“一个伟大民族的文学”。年轻的美国没有历史的沉重包袱,很快在政治、经济和文化方面成长为一个独立的国家。这一时期也是美国历史上西部扩张时期,到1860年领土已开拓到太平洋西岸。到十九世纪中叶,美国已由原来的十三个州扩大到二十一个州,人口从1790年的四百万增至 1860年的三千万。在经济上,年轻的美国经历向工业的转化,影响所及不仅仅是城市,而且也包括农村。蒸汽动力在工、农业生产上的运用、工厂的建立、劳动力的大量需求以及科技上的发明创造使经济生活得到了重组。另外,大量移民促进了工业更加蓬勃的发展。政治上,民主与平等成为这个年轻国家的理想,产生了两党制。值得一提的是这个国家的文学和文化生活。随着独立的美国政府的成立,美国人民已感到需要有美国文学,表达美国人民所特有的经历:早期清教徒的殖民,与印第安人的遭遇,边疆开发者的生活以及西部荒原等。这个年轻国家的文学富有想象,已产生了一种文学环境。报刊杂志如雨后春笋,出现了一大批文学读者,形成了十九世纪上半叶蓬勃的浪漫主义的文学思潮。 外国的,尤其是英国的文学大师对美国作家产生了重大影响。美国作家由于秉承了与英国一样的文化传统,形成了同英国一样的浪漫主义风格。欧文 (Irving)、库柏(Cooper),坡(Poe),弗伦诺(Freneau)和布雷恩特(Bryant)一一反古典主义时期的文学样式和文学思潮, 开创了较新的小说和诗歌形式。这一时期大多数美国文学作品中,普遍强调文学的想象力和情感因素,注重生动的描写、异国情调的表达、感官的体会和对超自然力的描述。美国作家特别注意感情的自由表达和人物的心理描写。作品中的主人公富有敏感激动的特质。注重表现个人和普通人是这一时期作品的强烈倾向,几乎成了美国的信仰。富雷诺、布雷思特和库柏等人的作品对客观自然的描写有强烈的兴趣。富雷诺在"帝国的废墟"主题中对过去情景的描写绘声绘色,布雷恩特对北美五大湖区的史前印第安人描述引人入胜,欧文对哈德逊河传说的巧加利用炉火纯青,库柏的长篇历史小说深入细致。总的来说,美国浪漫主义时期的文学上接英国文学传统,下开美国文学之风。 虽然美国文学受到外国文学的影响,但这一时期著名的文学作品表现的却是富有美国色彩的浪漫主义思想。“西部开拓”就是一个说明美国作家表现自己国家的恰好的例子。他们大量描述了美国本土的自然风光:原始的森林、广袤的平原、无际的草原、沧茫的大海、不一而足。这些自然景物成为人们品格的象征,形成了美国文学中离开尘世,心向自然的传统。这些传统在库柏的《皮袜子的故事》(Leather Stocking Tales〉、梭罗的《沃尔顿》 (Walden)以及后来马克�6�1吐温的《哈克贝里�6�1芬历险记》(Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn)中都得到了明显的表现。随着美国民族意识的增长,在小说、诗歌中美国人物都越来越明显地操本地方言,作品多表现农民、穷人、儿童以及没有文化的人,还有那些虽然没文化但心地高尚的红种人和白种人。美国清教作为一种文化遗产,对美国人的道德观念产生了很大影响,在美国文学中也留下了明显的印迹。一个明显的表现就是,比起欧洲文学, 美国文学的道德倾向十分浓厚。在霍桑(Hawthorne)、梅尔维尔(Melville)以及其他一些小作家的作品中加尔文主义的原罪思想和罪恶的神秘性都得到了充分的表现。 美国浪漫主义文学运动足能标炳的是新英格兰的超验主义运动。该运动开始于19世纪30年代的新英格兰的先验主义俱乐部。本来,这个超验主义只是对新英格兰人提出来的。它是针对波士顿的唯一神教派的冷淡古板的理性主义而提的。而后来逐渐影响到全国,特别是在高级知识分子和文学界人士当中影响颇大,成为浪漫主义运动的核心。超验主义,它崇尚直觉,反对理性和权威,强调人有能力凭直觉直接认识真理,人能超越感觉获得知识。超验主义文学的主要代表是爱默生(Emerson)[5]和梭罗(Henry Davd Thoreau),他们的作品对美国文学产生了很大影响。超验主义理论的奠基人是爱默生,他的《论自然》曾被称为超验主义理论的“圣经”。超验主义“承认人类具有本能了解或认识真理的能力,能够超过感官获取知识”。爱默生[5]曾说:“只有人心灵的尊严才是最神圣的。”超验主义还认为自然是高尚的,个人是神圣的,因此人必须自助。在诗歌方面,新英格兰地区比较出名的诗人有郎费罗,在波士顿有惠蒂诶,他的长诗《大雪封门》被称为“一部优美的新英格兰田园诗”。 这一时期涌现了许多作家,著名的有富雷诺(Philip Freneau)、布雷恩特(William Cullen Bryant)、郎费罗 (Henry Wordsworth Longfellow)、娄威尔(James Rassel Lowell)、惠特 (John Greenleaf Whitter〉、爱伦�6�1坡[6] (Edgar Ellen Poe)、以及惠特曼[2、3、4、8] (Walt Whitman)。19世纪最伟大的美国浪漫主义诗人是惠特曼,惠特曼1855年出版的《草叶集》[2、3、4、8](Leaves of Grass)是美国十九世纪最有影响的诗歌。《草叶集》[2、3、4、8]标志着美国文学进入了一个崭新的时代。另一位革新诗人是狄金森[7、8],她被誉为美国20世纪新诗的先驱。浪漫主义时期两位最重要的小说家是霍桑和梅尔维尔,在浪漫派作家中埃德加�6�1爱伦�6�1坡[6]是第一位美国主张为艺术而艺术的人。美国浪漫主义时期的小说富有独创性、多样性,有华盛顿�6�1欧文的喜剧性寓言体小说,有爱伦�6�1坡[6]的歌德式惊险故事,有库柏的边疆历险故事,有麦尔维尔长篇叙事,有霍桑的心理罗曼史,有戴维斯 (Rebecca Harding Davis)的社会现实小说。美国浪漫主义作家在人性的理解上也各自不同。爱默生、梭罗等超验主义者认为人类在自然中是神圣的,因此人类是可以完善的,但霍桑和麦尔维尔则认为人们在内心上都是罪人,因此需要道德力量来改善人性。《红字》[9]一书就典型地反映了这个观点。总之,美国浪漫主义文学在一定程度上与欧洲浪漫主义文学之间有衍生性,与启蒙思想相悖,强调感情、想象和主观性。但大部分美国浪漫主义文学作品还是典型的美国化作品。美国浪漫主义文学的特征与其产生的特定的社会、历史、文化背景渊源相关,反映了美利坚民族一个“真正全新的经历”、深受美国清教主义运动的影响、信仰个人主义和直觉的价值、追求民主与政治上的平等、强调“使命感”以及多样化的创作形式。
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美国文学论文英文版2500字数
Emily Elizabeth Dickinson (December 10, 1830 – May 15, 1886) was an American Dickinson was a prolific private poet, though fewer than a dozen of her nearly eighteen hundred poems were published during her The work that was published during her lifetime was usually altered significantly by the publishers to fit the conventional poetic rules of the Dickinson's poems are unique for the era in which she wrote; they contain short lines, typically lack titles, and often utilize slant rhyme as well as unconventional capitalization and Many of her poems deal with themes of death and immortality, two subjects which infused her letters to Although most of her acquaintances were probably aware of Dickinson's writing, it was not until after her death in 1886—when Lavinia, Emily's younger sister, discovered her cache of poems—that the breadth of Dickinson's work became Her first collection of poetry was published in 1890 by personal acquaintances Thomas Wentworth Higginson and Mabel Loomis Todd, both of whom heavily edited the A complete and mostly unaltered collection of her poetry became available for the first time in 1955 when The Poems of Emily Dickinson was published by scholar Thomas H J Despite unfavorable reviews and skepticism of her literary prowess during the late 19th and early 20th century, critics now consider Dickinson to be a major American
英文作文---921地震 What I was doing when the 921 earthquake happened? In the 921 earthquake, I and my girlfriend are We are on the bed, doing i am up, and she is So, we are up and down, up and The earthquake is more and more big, and we are more and more Though my girlfriend says no no I know her heart says yes yes At last, we are into high 潮 That day, we are the happiest
美国文学论文英文版2500字数量
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已发送,请查收,一个txt文档英文论文-文学类例文Abstract: Robinson Crusoe is a legendary person created by Daniel D He survived on a lonely island for twenty-eight years with his amazing And finally he overcame the adversity and created the splendor of his own When he was confronting adversity, he knew to lose is another way to gain, and he made plans for his future He did everything according to certain And he never gave Nowadays, people live in a better Nobody would have the experiences like Robinson’s, but people may come across some difficulty or When they are confronting the adversity, they should adjust their attitudes, make plans for the future actively, be good at bringing forth new ideas in adversity, and never give up the hope to get out of it, struggle against it indomitably like Robinson C Eventually they will get out of the adversity, and create the splendor of their own Key Words: adversity; hope; innovation; perseverance; splendorIntroductionIt is well known that Robinson Crusoe is a great character by Daniel D Though Robinson is a fictitious great person, he tells people the truth that we should confront the adversity Robinson Crusoe’s life is full of He was born in a good family in the city of Y Owing to his rambling thoughts about going to the sea, he broke loose to be a sailor against his parents’ Unfortunately, he was caught by the Morning and became a slave at the African Because of the unbearable life, he escaped from his Patron in a Then he was saved by a And he was sent to Brazils He became rich by But when some one suggested going to the sea to buy and sell Negroes, he surrendered himself to his dream Then he stepped on his way to navigation to A On the way there, they were caught in a violent storm, which brought death to everyone except R He was driven by the current and drifted to an island and was Since then he began his life on the
American literature refers to written or literary work produced in the area of the United States and Colonial A For more specific discussions of poetry and theater, see Poetry of the United States and Theater in the United SOverviewDuring its early history, America was a series of British colonies on the eastern coast of the present-day United S Therefore, its literary tradition begins as linked to the broader tradition of English However, unique American characteristics and the breadth of its production usually now cause it to be considered a separate path and Colonial literatureSome of the earliest forms of American literature were pamphlets and writings extolling the benefits of the colonies to both a European and colonist John Smith of Jamestown could be considered the first American author with his works: A True Relation of Virginia (1608) and The General Historie of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles (1624) Other writers of this manner included Daniel Denton, Thomas Ashe, William Penn, George Percy, William Strachey, John Hammond, Daniel Coxe, Gabriel Thomas, and John LThe religious disputes that prompted settlement in America were also topics of early A journal written by John Winthrop discussed the religious foundations of the Massachusetts Bay C Edward Winslow also recorded a diary of the first years after the Mayflower's Other religiously influenced writers included Increase Mather and William Bradford, author of the journal published as a History of Plymouth Plantation, 1620– Others like Roger Williams and Nathaniel Ward more fiercely argued state and church Some poetry also Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor are especially Michael Wigglesworth wrote a best-selling poem, The Day of Doom, describing the time of Nicholas Noyes was also known for his doggerel Other early writings described conflicts and interaction with the Indians, as seen in writings by Daniel Gookin, Alexander Whitaker, John Mason, Benjamin Church, and Mary R John Eliot translated the Bible into the Algonquin Jonathan Edwards and Cotton Mather represented the Great Awakening, a religious revival in the early 18th century that asserted strict C Other Puritan and religious writers include Thomas Hooker, Thomas Shepard, Uriah Oakes, John Wise, and Samuel W Less strict and serious writers included Samuel Sewall, Sarah Kemble Knight, and William BThe revolutionary period also contained political writings, including those by colonists Samuel Adams, Josiah Quincy, John Dickinson, and Joseph Galloway, a loyalist to the Two key figures were Benjamin Franklin and Thomas P Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanac and The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin are esteemed works with their wit and influence toward the formation of a budding American Paine's pamphlet Common Sense and The American Crisis writings are seen as playing a key role in influencing the political tone of the During the revolution itself, poems and songs such as "Yankee Doodle" and "Nathan Hale" were Major satirists included John Trumbull and Francis H Philip Morin Freneau also wrote poems about the war's Early US literatureIn the post-war period, The Federalist essays by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay prepresented a historical discussion of government organization and republican Thomas Jefferson's United States Declaration of Independence, his influence on the Constitution, his autobiography, the Notes on the State of Virginia, and the mass of his letters have led to him being considered one of the most talented early American Fisher Ames, James Otis, and Patrick Henry are also valued for their political writings and The first American novel is sometimes considered to be William Hill Brown's The Power of Sympathy (1789) Much of the early literature of the new nation struggled to find a uniquely American European forms and styles were often transferred to new locales and critics often saw them as For example, Wieland and other novels by Charles Brockden Brown (1771-1810) are often seen as imitations of the Gothic novels then being written in EUnique American styleWith the War of 1812 and an increasing desire to produce uniquely American work, a number of key new literary figures appeared, perhaps most prominently Washington Irving, William Cullen Bryant, James Fenimore Cooper, and Edgar Allan P Irving, often considered the first writer to develop a unique American style (although this is debated) wrote humorous works in Salmagundi and the well-known satire A History of New York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker (1809) Bryant wrote early romantic and nature-inspired poetry, which evolved away from their European In 1835, Poe began writing short stories -- including The Masque of the Red Death, The Pit and the Pendulum, The Fall of the House of Usher, and The Murders in the Rue Morgue -- that explore previously hidden levels of human psychology and push the boundaries of fiction toward mystery and Cooper's Leatherstocking tales about Natty Bumppo were popular both in the new country and Humorous writers were also popular and included Seba Smith and Benjamin P Shillaber in New England and Davy Crockett, Augustus Baldwin Longstreet, Johnson J Hooper, Thomas Bangs Thorpe, Joseph G Baldwin, and George Washington Harris writing about the American The New England Brahmins were a group of writers connected to Harvard University and its seat in Cambridge, M The core included James Russell Lowell, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and Oliver Wendell Holmes, SIn 1836, Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), an ex-minister, published a startling nonfiction work called Nature, in which he claimed it was possible to dispense with organized religion and reach a lofty spiritual state by studying and responding to the natural His work influenced not only the writers who gathered around him, forming a movement known as Transcendentalism, but also the public, who heard him Emerson's most gifted fellow-thinker was perhaps Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862), a resolute After living mostly by himself for two years in a cabin by a wooded pond, Thoreau wrote Walden, a book-length memoir that urges resistance to the meddlesome dictates of organized His radical writings express a deep-rooted tendency toward individualism in the American Other writers influenced by Transcendentalism were Bronson Alcott, Margaret Fuller, George Ripley, Orestes Brownson, and Jones VThe political conflict surrounding Abolitionism inspired the writings of William Lloyd Garrison and his paper The Liberator, along with poet John Greenleaf Whittier and Harriet Beecher Stowe in her world-famous Uncle Tom's CIn 1837, the young Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864) collected some of his stories as Twice-Told Tales, a volume rich in symbolism and occult Hawthorne went on to write full-length "romances," quasi-allegorical novels that explore such themes as guilt, pride, and emotional repression in his native New E His masterpiece, The Scarlet Letter, is the stark drama of a woman cast out of her community for committing Hawthorne's fiction had a profound impact on his friend Herman Melville (1819-1891), who first made a name for himself by turning material from his seafaring days into exotic Inspired by Hawthorne's example, Melville went on to write novels rich in philosophical In Moby Dick, an adventurous whaling voyage becomes the vehicle for examining such themes as obsession, the nature of evil, and human struggle against the In another fine work, the short novel Billy Budd, Melville dramatizes the conflicting claims of duty and compassion on board a ship in time of His more profound books sold poorly, and he had been long forgotten by the time of his He was rediscovered in the early decades of the 20th Anti-transcendental works from Melville, Hawthorne, and Poe all comprise the Dark Romanticism subgenre of literature popular during this
中国美术欣赏论文2500字体
工写妙合画心境,融会贯通求变革 -----著名花鸟画家赵清国的作品赏析 夫从艺者,托其根于心智也,发其花、笔端墨彩于萱桑也。人之神不能无为,思虑易迁,哀乐相变,感生于志,赋形凝萃于画间。庚寅(2010)年春(5月15日),在首都的一场拍卖会中,著名花鸟画家赵清国先生的多幅花鸟和国画人物作品赢得来自全国各地和场外的网络参拍者竞相投购,其中一幅斗方葡萄创下25万元的拍卖纪录。五月的北京春寒料峭,不畏风寒的人们带着极大的热情前来参观竞拍。展厅四壁挂满了国内外中国画大师们的作品,清国先生参拍十幅中国画作。这幅以葡萄为主题的《春华秋实》展拍,气势恢弘、枝藤遒劲而又笔墨浓重!赵清国,河南郑州须水镇人,1954年生于普通农民家庭。兄妹五人排行老末,儿时受大哥和父辈的蒙学影响,喜欢读书、写字、画画。他最大的理想将来当一名画家。中学读书时,他的文化课和美术课成绩都非常优秀。然而“文革”却断送了绘画的梦想。1970年,刚满十六岁的他不得不携笔从戎,来到中国人民解放军武汉军区工程兵某部。白天在坑道里从事繁重的体力施工,晚上回兵营挑灯夜战,读书写字。艰苦的生活环境磨练了清国的意志,坚定了他学画、当画家的决心。从那时起,他养成了画速写的习惯。他说,他至今不抽烟、不打牌,和年轻时画画的理想追求是有直接关系的。庄子《外篇》曰:“夫残朴以为器,工匠之罪也。毁道德以为仁义,圣人之过也”。青年时代的清国,奋发上进,施工工程,文化宣传,样样都抢在前头,干的出色。他说,人活着,不管做什么,都应该有种向上精神追求,越是环境艰苦,越要有独立的精神。“天行健,君子以自强不息。”(《周易?上经》)他常以古人这句话作为自己的座右铭,从普通施工员,到书记员,再到司务长,是一步一个脚印走过来的。清国在部队的时候喜欢读书,兴趣广泛,吹拉弹唱样样都行。但他最钟情的还是画画。他不但喜欢画花鸟鱼虫工笔小品,更热心于描写全景式的大幅巨制。他有时也画油画、搞书法,涉猎极广,没有定式。他最终走上绘画道路正轨,拜潘天寿的入室弟子,浙江美院(现中国美院)的朱颖人教授为师,却来自一次偶然的机会。70年代末,已转业到地方的物资系统清国,在洛阳接待了朱颖人、陈永康等先生一行的艺术家,并观看了他们合作的一幅丈二巨作《洛阳花似锦图》,那绚丽的墨彩、挺立的奇石,虬曲的松柏、华丽的牡丹、萱草以及气势逼人构图,让清国良久驻足,竟然看呆了,原来中国画还可以这样画。他暗下决心,一定要拜朱教授为师,学画国画。说来也巧,刚好朱颖人先生与河南知名花鸟画家李自强先生熟捻。他家中收藏有朱先生十数张从20世纪60年代延至新近的大幅花鸟画作品,清国如视珍宝,借来系统地仔细临摹。他深感自己原有的绘画功底不足,先后在天津大学进修MBA期间到天津美院和贾宝珉、姬俊尧、王之江、李学瑛等先生系统地学习传统绘画理论。1992年4月,经李自强先生推荐,清国带上了数十幅作品驱车千里至杭州西子湖畔朱先生府上求教。朱先生在一一看过作品,夸清国画画有灵气,并在其作品上题字:“精神可嘉,当需努力”。兴致之余,朱先生信手边画边讲,口传身授。那年,朱先生71岁,清国43岁,当为先生的晚年弟子之一。“朱颖人先对生活和艺术的理解表现在他的三个基本观点之中,艺术风格要与个性相和谐、生活的感受是创作的源泉、中国画笔墨是能不断传承发展的艺术。他身上充分表现了一位当代中国画人精审敦厚、充满自信的品质。”朱颖人先生的师承十分丰富,他既受过颜文梁、林风眠、孙文林、关良、倪贻德、黎冰鸿等人学院式的西洋画教育,也受过蔡卓群、吴茀之、潘天寿等人师徒式的训练,他善于吸收中、西绘画两方面的营养,把学院式的教学和传统师徒传承式的训练结合起来学习,并贯彻到他以门生代行老先生的教学中去。朱先生常说:“光学古人的笔墨是远远不够的,要做到师迹又师心,注意学习古人的意境和构思”。朱先生重视课徒与古代名画临摹、写生、创作三个环节的关联互动,主张借“临摹与读画”以学古(即因),承“写生与创作”(即创)以开今。通过学古达于开今的目的。写生是师古人师造化的实践,是通向创作的必由之路。创作是写生的提炼和升华,同时,又是师古人,师造化的试金石,通过实践寻找自身的缺陷和不足。实际上在整个学画的过程中,临摹、写生、创作三者是循环往复不断交替进行的。在老师的引领和启发下,清国逐渐明白了这些道理,并且重新注意临摹、写生、创作三者的关系。大体来说,清国的创作九十年代前以临摹为主,兼及写生创作;后期以写生、创作为主。纵观清国的绘画是临摹、写生和创作交叉进行的。经过近三十年的不懈努力,清国逐渐走出一条自悟的学画之路。清国追随朱颖人教授以及诸多先生学画,虔诚,有颗执著之心。先生们亦都倾其所长,无论从题材画意,还是笔墨题款,都毫无保留的传授。清国学得刻苦,也学得灵活。既从宏观着眼,注意把握大局。又从微观入手,一笔一画,精微描摹。他学习有心,不但揣摩老师们的传授要点,而且重视研究老师各自的画路、画材,并结合自己的特点,有针对地借鉴。2005年以来,清国进入创作盛期,完成了一批以葡萄,牡丹、荷花和各种农作物为主题的大型画作,像《风雨荷塘图》、《南风吹来望丰年》、《山中惟有茶烟》(2006年),《春雨》、《清溪品茗图》、《石榴韵赋》、《秋馨图》、《云岭寄情》(2007年),水彩画《雪域佛光》、《缤纷净界》、《嵩山雪景》(2008年)都是这一时期的代表。通观清国以花鸟为主景的作品,早期的作品比较写实,“物之华,取其华,物之实,取其实”,追求朴实的自然美。近期的作品渐趋夸张,带有一定的象征性,透露出较多的理性精神。从上述作品可以明显看出,画家渐由“客观”描摹进入一个主观“臆造”的全新阶段。在创作构图上,清国着意追求雄浑博大的意境,大视角、特写式镜头强化、夸张花木的奇绝,枝藤的伟岸,从而拉近与观众的距离,造成一种强烈的视觉冲击力,使人随作品迸发出心底的崇高感。我国著名花鸟画家,美术评论家,人民艺术家鲁慕迅先生在其《梅花》作品上题款“漫天飞雪压重峦,独立冰崖展笑颜;根有丹砂花似火,化将光热暖人间”。为更好的表现和适应大幅画创作的需要,清国运用粗放的大笔,以浓墨、焦墨和重彩,泼洒胸中浩然之气,从而追求朴厚凝重的艺术效果。这种壮美的审美取向预示着清国艺术创作孕育着一场突变。为迎接这场孕育已久的艺术创作变革,清国先后接受《世界知识画报》、《科技人》和国家机关的邀请,赴京创作巨幅葡萄题材的《珠玑图》、《紫气东来》、《寻诗觅句涉秋园》等画作。他告诉我,近期要重新有选择的读些理论书籍和诗集,拓展意境,滋养笔墨,六十岁以后再进行风格变化,以期探索花鸟人文画的表现方式,展现由修养与能力交融起来的思维,达到直取水墨写意作品的神意格调和主题思想品质。
中华民族美术过去之灿烂 傅抱石 近时外国人对于中华民族性的批评,总是离不了说中国是"自尊"、"自大"的民族。殊不知中国人的"自尊"和"自大",是有原因的,是有道理的。在某种程度上,我们还必须保守着这种"自尊"、"自大"的好国民性。今日的中国,尤其有急切的需要和重大的意义。 单论美术这一项,其发达之古,创造之精,莫说东方,就是世界上也难寻其匹。日本还在请中国人办外交主政事的时候,我们已把西域的美术精华吃下肚子。吐出以后的唐宋光辉之花。埃及是最古不过的了,然而把那粗笨的刻画,和我们三代的玉器铜器比上一比,若根据他的遗物,他就发展到与三代同一时期也办不到的。"铜器时代",哪一民族拿得出如此雄壮伟大神妙不可言状的宝贝?虽一二遗留,它的价值,除供考古学者的摩娑研究,物器本身,已没有什么,然中华民族在世界美术史上有了最伟大最先进的创造是无疑的。虽然有许多学者,硬说我们古代那批宝贝,某种是间接学自波斯的,某种又是直接从印度偷来的,总而言之,说我们中国人是没有多大用的东西,然而这无非是因为我们的宝贝太高贵,把他们吓得没有什么可说。眼见中国如何贫弱,所以他们还要这样说:"中国何德何能?龟甲铜器,《春秋》三传,完全是伪造,你汉人尚能做什么呢" 虽然,他们尽管侮辱,若是有人送他们一个同治年的瓷器,或是乾隆年的雕漆,保证他脑筋中起不可思议的作用,佩服得五体投地。难道这又是从英吉利法兰西偷来的么? 展开东方艺术系统图来看一看,所谓"古代系"、"希腊系"、"印度系"、"中国系"的四大系中,实际上只中国与印度的二大系。假使中华民族不负起吸收、融化和创造的责任,到现在朝鲜有美术么?日本有美术么?"印度系"又走得几步路呢?关于这些理论,姑且不论。总之我们就是说:中华民族曾经包办东亚的美术,是东亚美术名正言顺的不祧之祖,也不为过。 我中华民族特别的长处,是不但能够闻一知十,而且是只要和别的民族文化见见面,就会造出比人家更好的文化。一般美术史学者,他们把中国自三国至五代(约西纪二○○--一○○○年)的一个时期,定为"佛教艺术时代"(德人Hirth氏)或是"古典时代"(英人Bushell氏)或是"西域艺术攫取时代"(日人伊东忠太氏),述说当时以后的美术,完全没有独自的发展,而决定中国的中世美术史。我可以举一个极简单的例,来证明这种述说的不确。诚然,中国的美术,受了不少印度的影响。但是要明白,这些影响,到了六朝初期,早被中华民族聪明的脑袋将它化得干净。譬如说,张墨顾恺之的《维摩变相图》,陆探微载安道的《无量寿佛》则学印度的么?印度有没有?云岗龙门巩县等佛窟两足交叉的弥勒像,又是学印度的么?印度的弥勒像,是否两双脚交叉还是并垂呢?像这种例,举不胜举,一二学者,觉得中国人太不可方物,于是拼命从佛教经典内,拖出中国佛教艺术的前身来。似乎带哭带骂地说:"中国真聪明!印度没有的东西也会造!你看呵!菩萨头背后那道圆光,印度又那里有呢?"我们并不否认人家如此地讥评,这正是我们所欣慰的事。美术是什么?佛教美术又是什么?朝鲜日本的古美术,都是中国美术的儿孙,然不能说朝鲜日本便没有它自己的美术。这一切,都是中华民族在美术上特殊的伟大的表现!是世界美术史上最光荣灿烂的一页! 只是创造,创造得不高明是不行的;只是吸收,吞进去受不住也是不行的。中华民族,有无量成绩做本身最高度文化的证明。纪元前一千年的工世,能作出就是现在五千年后也还是奉为标准的"形式"和"纹样"。葡萄花纹,就说是外国货,然"云纹"、"雷纹"、"蟠纹"、"饕餮纹"总是本号自造!并且形体周备,意匠完美,会在砖瓦头上刻字描画!会将一双雀子,站在乌龟背脊上做灯盏!檐会飞!柱会雕!凡是与生活有关系的器物,哪一样不施以美的设计?秦始皇为防胡人而筑的万里长城,其雄伟盖世的气慨,又谁不咋舌吃惊? 绘画较工艺发达稍迟一点。古书上,舜皇帝的妹子,以及"苍颉作书,史皇作画"等等传说,姑不信它。在今日可得见的古代绘画作品,汉朝的已有很多了。孝堂山武梁祠的石刻画,固然不是二十世纪图案最发达的欧洲画家可以"便化"得出来,就是一块汉画像砖上的人物,也够使现代东西方的人物画家惊异。藏在英国大英博物馆橱内的东晋顾恺之《女史箴图》,那画上的人物,态度优美而庄重,线条遒劲,布置闲雅,第四世纪的东西,我们不知道那时候欧洲的人物画如何?再说唐代的阎立本,它的驰名世界的《历代帝王像》,听说尚有十三张在福建林氏家中(一说梁鸿志君所)。这稀世的宝物,它的唐代初期绘画的黄金时代,充分表示无遗。日本帝室御物有一张《圣德太子像》,中间画圣德太子,左右画山背大兄王和殖栗王。这张画,他们的确经过许多人研究,据旧法隆隆寺《寺传》上说,是百济国阿佐太子到日本画的。许多人不以为然,说《圣德太子像》的服制全是"本邦的古仪"!但是除此以外,可没有第二张和这画逼肖的作品。是天上掉下来的么?实事求是的先生们,不得不怀疑了,不得不恭维阎立本的《历代帝王像》了。因为阎立本的《历代帝王像》,也是中间画皇帝,两边画侍臣侍女的。于是《圣德太子像》的本源(布置或笔法),便牵在阎立本的《历代帝王像》上。 经晚唐五代而至宋徽宗的花鸟,即今日还原色印在日本寻常小学生的画帖上。不过不说是中国的,但说"距现在有八百多年一个叫做宗的皇帝"而已。绘画到了徽宗时期,无论花鸟,山水,一切部门,都有杰出的大家,彪炳史乘!南渡后,刚刚一百二十年,霹雳一声,蒙古人打定了天下,可怜当时那班画家们,忍着精神上的痛夺,拼命向笔墨间抒其抑郁之孤愤幽绪!黄公望,他叫出"寄乐于画"的口号,以刺激那些利欲熏心的分子。倪云林也曾说过"余之画,不过草草,聊写胸中之逸气耳"!这种艺人的本色,也是当代社会的反面。我们看倪云林的山水,存着一种什么样的境界!元四大家中,王蒙为了母舅的关系,做过一下泰安知州,在画史上,虽然他的挥洒高妙,有时也逃不了峻刻批评。至明代则文沈唐仇是适合当时代的产物,谨严之中,复邃幽趣。至于清初的八大山人与苦瓜和尚,他们的行径和笔墨,又岂独在一山一水一花一鸟之间?尤其石涛的诗,"梅花"、"遗民"可说是常常应用。我们在三百年之后,应不应该向这些民族艺人表示诚恳的敬意? 雕刻的遗迹,随便说吧,如云岗巩县天龙山等多数的佛窟,真不知接受了几何人的瞻仰和崇拜。东方固是第一大艺术,西方也未见得有出其右者。我们要知道,这成千成万的石佛,都是先民一刀一刀,一尊一尊,累月经年所造成,若说是没有伟大力量的民族办得到,那现在也不让云岗独霸一部东方雕刻史了。 这无量数的遗宝,都是中华民族精神的寄托。唯有这些遗宝,中华民族在世界美术上始值得自豪,值得人家不远万里费长久时间,来研究我们一张纸或是一块石头。 然则中国美术在世界上的地位如何呢?这可分做两方面说:一方面,以异民族的关系,突然接触"形式"、"色彩"与自己绝对不同的美术品,自然产生一种奇异。或者本来存有某种用意(如对于工艺品),因之有些人,拼命地研究。这些人,是把中国美术推崇得真比天还要高不可攀。一方面,就美术品的评价上,中国美术品,大至开山打洞,小至一把扇子、一个酒杯,都具有不可形容的独特境界。这种境界,是中华民族的境界,是东方的境界,也即是世界两种境界之一的境界。因此,与欧洲美术,显然划清了路线,而此辔齐奔。 他们的绘画,是"色彩"和"面"的结合;中国的绘画是"线条"和"点"的交响乐。过惯了都市文明的他们,现在也需要枯淡清冲的刺激,在绘画上,已有相当的证明。不过以欣赏的趣味或能力如何,所以有的欢喜唐宋的谨严,有的欢喜元人的淡逸。 他们的雕刻,是不穿衣服的多;中国的雕刻,则多穿衣服。人体的曲线固属美妙,而衣服飘举,隐约如见,又何尝不美?他们的材料,多用金属,用石头;中国的材料,多用木,用泥,用麻,用漆,这是种种环境造成的分歧当不因此显其轩轾。 中国的美术,无论建筑、雕刻、绘画、工艺,创作上固各有伟大的贡献,理论上更是发世界所未发。东晋有顾恺之的《论画》,南齐的谢赫的《六法论》。当第四五世纪,即有如此完善的绘画理论,可说是惊人的成功。如顾恺之说的:"凡画人最难次山水,次狗马,台榭一完器耳,难成而易好,不待迁想妙得也。"王微说:"目有所极,故所见不周;于是乎以一管之笔,拟太虚之体;以判躯之状,画寸眸之明"是何等的透彻合理呵!本来美术不像科学,不一定读熟了理论才去制作,也不一定有理论便有作品。但是世界美术史家们,常常贬人而誉已。我以为这些精湛的论著,是值得特笔大书,任他们存着怎样的偏见,也绝不能稍稍摇动。 在另一种情形之下,"中国美术"这个名词,稍稍费解。它的含义,似乎加了一层限制。欧美人所谓"中国美术",至多包括到嘉道以前。那时候,足迹到过中国的还不多,仅仅从一些布教师或商人的手中,得受中国美术的洗礼。日本人就根本不说出"中国美术"四个字。虽然是一本一本图谱或论著,自序文至版权页都是中国的美术品或研究,但总名之曰"东洋",或名为"支那古代美术",置于印度朝鲜之间。我们自己对于这种现象,应该明白西洋人与日本人的中国美术观,在可能内,他们是以不提起为妙的。此中道理,非常简单。 那种中国美术在世界上,不是被人轻视么?当然!在现在民族竞争的时代,谁肯对我们中国人说出半个好字?事实上,我们早知道有若干的"中国通",在贩卖中国的美术,在靠谈谈中国美术吃饭!更说具体一点,中国美术实在好得使一切不愿谈的人而又不得不谈,更不得不把中国美术似通非通地来利用。美国大来公司邮船上所印的旅客单,也装饰了中国六朝的佛像,江西不值钱的樟木箱子,到了支加哥会变成无上的美术品。日本不必论,著是不相当研究过中国美术,想做美术家是很困难的事。近年上田恭辅氏的《支那美术工艺骨董图说》,翻开封面便是"震惊世界的支那工艺美术"十一个大字。这点,也可见中华民族美术在世界的力量和地位了。 中华民族美术的进展,恰像一条弯弯曲曲的线,这条线,随美术的部门而曲折不同,同时随民族意识的强弱而曲折不同。我们要推究它曲折的痕迹,推究何以盛何以衰的原因,做今后民族美术建设的参考。 美术是一面社会的镜子,它的发生,成长,或是灭亡,都有它背后的一切做主人,使它不得不顺着而同一步骤,同一进退。前面说过,中国美术发达最早的是工艺,如玉器、铜器等,在三代已有精致的作品。因为朝廷设了玉府,召了许多琢玉的人从事研究制作,铜器也定有制度,形式大小等等,都有一定的标准。在这统一的机构指导之下,所以呈露当时代工艺极盛的时期。以后秦汉承继三代有组织的宏规,遂蔚成中华民族独立的伟大的美丽轮廓,造型的样式上,也愈见复杂,一一合于生活的需要了。绘画也可以用此种在统一下始得发展的方式来证明它的盛衰。绘画上黄金时代的唐宋,在唐有玄宗的好艺,育成吴道子李思训阎氏兄弟(立德立本)许多凌铄古今的大画家,山水画之勃兴,佛像画之转变,这不都是玄宗的功劳么?宋代更是值得我们崇仰,徽宗皇帝,他不但扩充翰林图画院的机构,并且高等官吏都要考一考绘画,当时的文臣武臣,有几个不能伸纸挥洒的呢?基于这种原因,一直到南宋中期的绘画,人材之多,发达之速,元明清固然不能及,即两晋六朝又哪能相提并论?其次雕刻,隋唐佛教造像之盛,梁武帝的优崇佛寺,是我们不能忘记的。至于最近的清代康雍乾三朝,不是朝廷的奖进,那中国美术史可以划明代为最后的一个阶段。现在我们所资为最丰富最可靠的美术参考资料,大部分是这三朝的成绩。 现在我们足以相信,相信中华民族美术的建设,是在先负起时代的使命,而后始有美术的可言;是在造成统一的倾向,而后始有"广大"、"庄重"、"永远"的收获。我们过去的痕迹,很明白地呈在眼前,古人说:"前事不忘,后事之师。"今日的中国美术,时代的使命是什么?统一的倾向是怎样?前者可以把近几十年的美术看一看,自然可以发觉我们应该走的大道,后者就是审度目前的缓急,决定这些大道,走哪一条?如何走法?
我交的时候把文中提到的几幅画打印出来了线,或称线条,是一种存在于现实生活或者美术作品中的视觉形态要素,由于它们往往是和形、体、色、光等视觉翌累同时并存的,所以,造型观念中的线,往往和视觉上的概括提炼与抽象相联系,然而这些能力的形成,又必须通过美术欣赏和美术创造的实践去训练。如何加深对“线”的概念的认识并在实践中艺术地去运用,是中学美术教学的重要环节。一、欣赏以线造型的中外美术作品,提高学生对“线”这一艺术形式的审美能力。线条是美术最基本的造型手段,是构成视觉艺术形象的一种基本因素,无论平面的还是立体的作品;不论是写实,还是装饰;不论是抽象的,还是具象的……在长期的美术发展过程中.“线”作为美术家创造形象和表达自己思想感情的艺术语言,一直处于十分重要的地位,并越来越显示出丰富的表现力及艺术美感。中国著名绘画大师吴冠中的《山水》一画,皴染不多,主要以毛笔线条勾勒,但其中线条流畅自由,轻重虚实的变化,随意性较强,具有浓厚的抒情意味和鲜明的时代感。法国后期野兽派大师匀蒂斯的《红沙发上的注女》(油画)以简洁概括、富子感情色而又极富装饰件的线,极为和谐、简练地勾画出一个呼之欲出的少女形象。二、重点强调中国传统美术中线的作用。中国画的线,可以追溯到仰韶时代的彩绘画,晚周帛画,楚器漆画和汉唐壁画。仰韶文化的彩陶纹样。是中国最早用线的作品,鲜明、生动、挺拔的线条,描绘了漩蜗纹、弦纹以及人的面形、虫鱼、鸟兽等形象,体现了原始艺术朴素、稚拙的美。唐宋以来,随着人物画创作的兴盛,线描艺术发展到厂一个高潮。吴道子是唐代的线描大师,人们称吴氏的线条为“吴带当风”,他画中的人物,衣袖飘动,生动异常,体现了高度的“运动感”和“节奏感”,充分发挥了线描艺术的效果。南宋画家梁楷的《元祖斫竹图》是一幅“写意”线描的人物画,画中人物元祖为佛教禅宗六世祖慧能.画家用寥寥数笔,把一个正在劳动中的老翁刻画得十分生动,中国画家经过长期的艺术实践,从“文人画”“院体画”到民间画,对线的运用各具风采(在表现物象的同时,还传达出入的情绪),传统技法——十八描,即是各种线的生动画法。三、东西方绘画用线的异同。由于受不同文化背景的影响,东西方绘画的线在形式美感上各不相同:东方绘画中的线注重表现情感,富于韵律感和装饰美;西方绘画中的线具有较强的理性特征,不能把这两者对立起来,应该指出线造型在东西方美术作品中是相通的,同样具有丰富的表现力和多彩的艺术美盛,只是由于欣赏习惯,绘画造型的传统观念的差异,形成了不同的表现方法和民族风格。从具体的作品来分析,东西方绘画线的表现特点又往往交织在一起,如二十世纪初法国的马蒂斯的作品就证明了这一点。他的作品既有西方绘画的优良传统,又吸收了东方艺术的特点,给人一种新的美感享受。在我国,随着中西文化的不断融合,中国传统美术有厂新的发展和变化,特别是近十几年来,这一点更加突出,如:吴谥械淖髌吩谙叩运用上有新意,线的节奏和韵律美十分强烈和鲜明。对中外美术作品的优良传统,都应认真研究继承,在学好我国传统绘画课的基础上,还需了解西方美术。“西为中用用”,使我们民族的绘画艺术具有当代性和世界性。