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西方经济学史论文1500字怎么写

发布时间:2024-07-01 03:27:12

西方经济学史论文1500字怎么写

对西方经济学的认识 现代西方经济学是经济学在西方国家发展到当代的产物。我国作为发展中社会主义国家,学习和研究西方经济学,有着非常积极和重要的意义。 首先,有利于增进对西方国家的了解和研究,加强同西方国家的交往,促进我国的改革开放。 在西方,经济学是基础学科,不了解西方经济学,就难以看懂西方经济国家的经济报刊文章,也无从把握西方国家的经济政策。因为西方的经济学著作和报刊文章都是按西方经济学的基本理论写成的,西方经济政策的制订也是以西方经济学为理论依据的。同时,在目前的国际经济机构中,西方经济学也是通用的经济语言和工具。具备西方经济学的基本知识,是参加国际经济机构的必备条件。现在,我国要坚定不移地执行对外开放的基本国策,加快改革开放的步伐,就必须了解、学习和研究西方经济学,只有这样,才能了解西方国家的经济政策及理论依据,知道他们的经济运行机理,懂得他们的经济组织和管理方法,研究他们的发展现状和趋势,积极参与各种国际性和区域性的经济组织和机构。真正做到知已知彼,促进改革开放的顺利发展。 其次,有利于促进社会主义市场经济的顺利发展。党的十四大明确指出,我国经济体制改革的目标模式是建立和完善社会主义市场经济体制。那么,什么是市场经济,它的运行机理和发展规律如何,如何建立和完善社会主义市场经济体制。这些问题,迫切需要有新的理论来解释、回答和阐述。而西方经济学则可以为我们提供参与和借鉴。虽然西方经济学从本质来说是一种资产阶级的思想体系,是为资产阶级的利益服务的,但西方经济学有具有实用性特征,它的理论体系是建立在资本主义市场经济和社会化大生产的基础之上的,它的理论观点和政策主张主要是为解决市场经济运行中出现的种种问题和矛盾服务的。可以这样说,西方经济学实际上是关于市场经济发展规律的科学。比如说,西方微观经济学中的供求理论、价格理论、成本和收益理论、市场理论、收入分配理论,宏观经济学中的国民收入核算理论、宏观经济政策、通货膨胀理论、货币理论、经济波动和经济周期理论等。这些理论实际上都是关于市场经济的一般理论,它可以为建立社会主义市场经济理论体系、促进社会主义市场经济的建立和发展提供有益的参考和借鉴。 再次,有利于促进马克思主义经济学的发展。马克思主义政治经济学,是在吸收资产阶级古典政治经济学的科学成份的基础上,在同形形色色的庸俗经济学的斗争中发展起来的。《资本论》问世一百多年来,一直遭到资产阶级经济学家的责难和攻击。现代西方经济学的一些重要人物也总是拿他们的各种理论来对抗和抵毁马克思主义经济学。我们要坚持和捍卫马克思主义经济学,就必须了解和研究西方经济学,只有这样,才能知已知彼,百战不贻(修改:殆)。同时,经济在发展,时代在前进,马克思主义经济学也要不断向前发展。在新的形式下,面对新的问题,马克思主义经济学只有在合理地吸收现代西方经济学的有益成果中才能不断发展。

论文的写作格式、流程与写作技巧

要是彻底不会写,建议你找个论文网站去档一份,如果会一点点的话,还是自己写得比较有成就感一点。就《西方经济史》方面,我没有什么好建议你的,微观部分占个30%,宏观部分50%,剩下的写结语。。

好的额。。,蓝玫瑰,。 找。 。 阿德里克、

西方经济学史论文1500字怎么写的

关于加强和改善我国宏观调控的几点思考建立规范完善的宏观调控体系是我国社会主义市场经济体制改革题中应有之意,而且,越是改革日益向纵深拓展,就越需要加强和改善宏观调控。现在,我国已经进入全面建设小康社会、加快推进社会主义现代化建设的新阶段,在这个新的历史时期,如何进一步加强和改善宏观调控,提高宏观调控的科学性、预见性和有效性,对于促进市场经济体制的建立和完善,推动经济健康持续发展,具有重要的理论意义和实践意义。一、科学界定宏观调控宏观调控是指为实现充分就业、物价稳定、经济持续增长、国际收支平衡而由国家运用一定的宏观经济政策对国民经济所实施的总体管理。为廓清宏观调控的边界,有必要区分以下几点。首先,宏观调控不同于政府管制。无论在政界还是在学界,把宏观调控与政府管制混为一谈的现象并不少见。其实,宏观调控属于宏观经济学范畴,而政府管制属于微观经济学范畴,二者的差别至少有以下几个方面uj:第一,对经济干预的层次不同。宏观调控是国家对总量经济的干预,政府管制则是对个量经济的干预。第二,与市场调节的关系不同。宏观调控的主要任务是为市场对资源进行优化配置创造前提,但它本身不是资源配置的方式,而政府管制是不同于市场调节的另外一种资源配置方式。第三,实施的原因不同。要实行政府管制,是因为存在着市场失灵,影响了资源配置的效率。要实施宏观调控,是因为宏观非均衡是市场经济运行的内在必然,当非均衡发展到一定程度,就会影响宏观经济全局,这时就需要实施宏观调控。第四,产生的历史条件不同。政府管制即使在自然经济占主要地位的社会中也曾存在,在古典经济学家的专著中也可以找出有关政府管制的论述。而宏观调控,只是到了一国或一个地区总需求和总供给的非均衡发展成为影响国民经济发展重大障碍问题之后才出现的,是现代市场经济所特有的。其次,宏观调控不同于整顿和规范市场经济秩序。宏观调控与整顿和规范市场经济秩序都是政府行为,但属于不同的范畴。市场经济秩序是指市场经济中规范交易主体、中介主体和政府监管主体行为的法律法规和道德约束体系。所谓市场经济有序,是指各类市场和各市场主体的约束体系健全,各市场主体行为符合法律规范和契约双方共同达成的准则以及社会道德规范的要求,合法利益与行为得到保护,非法行为受到惩罚和社会谴责,市场配置资源的效率最大可能地实现。整顿和规范市场经济秩序重在构建和完善一种约束体系和体制,而宏观调控重在以经济政策改善经济运行质量。良好的市场经济秩序是实施宏观调控的前提,市场经济秩序良好,有助于宏观调控目标的顺利实现,但仍不能把宏观调控等同于整顿和规范市场经济秩序。最后,宏观调控不同于纵向管理和针对重大经济问题的举措。在现实生活中,有一些部门和领导者对宏观调控与纵向管理、宏观调控与针对重大经济问题的举措存在着模糊认识。如有的部门把对其下属部门的管理冠之以宏观调控,把凡是带有全局性质的管理都称为宏观调控,把一些针对重大经济问题的举措也视为宏观调控,其实,宏观调控和纵向管理有着严格的界限。宏观调控可以理解为一种纵向管理,但不是所有的纵向管理都可以称为宏观调控。同样,宏观调控和针对重大经济问题的举措的区别亦比较明显。宏观调控所涉及到的固然是通货膨胀、失业、经济增长等重大经济问题,但并不是所有的重大经济问题都是宏观调控的对象。二、宏观调控应该与时俱进,保持动态调整宏观调控是一个动态调整过程,不可能是一劳永逸、一成不变的,因为经济始终处于不断的变化中,所以,宏观调控也应该密切关注宏观调控环境的新变化,适时进行调整。现在我国经济已经出现了一些新变化:第一,经济开放度进一步提高。作为WTO的正式成员,我国和世界经济的联系和交融进入了一个新的发展阶段,当前正处于进入WTO后最为关键的“过渡期”,一方面,我国经济开放速度将进一步加快,开放程度将进一步提高,另一方面,我国必须利用时问有限的“过渡期”,提高驾驭宏观经济全局的能力,以适应日益加速的开放步伐。由于时间表的限制,与过去20年的“自主开放”相比,其紧迫性将更为突出,刚性将会更强,将会更加“不由自主”。对于在开放型经济深化过程中出现的这种质的变化.宏观调控应给予足够的重视。根据Mundel1.Fleming模型,经济开放必然会对一国宏观调控政策的有效性产生影响,其财政政策和货币政策的自主性将会受到冲击;在利率降低、汇率稳定的情况下,会引起资本外流,国际收支状况恶化;同时,在资本有限流动、汇率固定的情况下,扩张性财政政策导致总需求增加,相应净进口增加,造成贸易逆差,但随着时间的推移,贸易逆差将导致货币供给下降,直至总需求恢复到初始水平。克鲁格曼的“三元悖论”也表述了同样的道理,他认为,一般而言,货币政策的独立性、汇率的稳定性和资本的完全流动性这三个目标不能同时实现,而只能实现其中的两个。目前,我国选择的是货币政策的独立性和汇率的稳定,而对资本流动进行了管制。这意味着,一旦资本流动得不到完全管制,货币政策的独立性就会大打折扣。而实际情况是,虽然我国资本项目不能自由流动,但巨额的“错误与遗漏”数额的存在表明,资本项目一直在变相地实现着国际间的流动。这说明,货币政策独立性的条件还不充分,也为决策层如何处理好开放经济条件下对内平衡的政策限度提出了挑战。第二,宏观调控的运作环境进一步复杂化。我国的市场经济尚属不成熟的市场经济,在经济快速发展中,一些深层次问题和矛盾更为凸现,使得宏观调控的运作环境相对复杂化,可变性大,主要表现:一是经济的市场化程度不够高。从现实经济可以看到,无论是企业还是个人的行为都不尽合理,还没有成为规范的市场经济主体。从企业的经济行为来看,无论是公有产权,还是私有产权,都存在着不清晰或不甚清晰的问题,还没有按市场经济的要求建立起规范的现代企业制度,生产经营行为短期化,产品缺乏竞争力,资源配置和使用效益不高现象十分突出。就个人经济行为而言,作为劳动力,难以完全按照市场经济原则公平自由流动;作为消费者,尚未完全以货币所有者身份进入市场;作为投资者,尚不具备独立的资格自由从事多种生产经营活动。二是市场机制不健全,市场经济秩序混乱,市场信号扭曲,地方保护主义严重,还没有形成全国统一的大市场。这些扭曲现象得不到纠正,宏观调控措施就很难到位。三是经济运行中一些矛盾进一步突出。首先,在出El下降和进口增加的双重压力下,需求不足和通货紧缩压力仍很突出,需求的内在自主增长机制还没有完全形成。其次,城乡居民就业压力持续增长。“十五”期间,城乡每年新增劳动力人数将升到峰值,加上现有的下岗失业人员,城乡每年劳动力供给量都在2200万人以上,而每年新增就业岗位在800万个左右,缺口很大。最后,经济结构不合理的矛盾日趋突出,存量资产结构重组、增量资产结构高效要求更加迫切,地区结构、产业结构优化任务更加繁重 。这些新变化对宏观调控提出了新的要求,要求调控重点、政策搭配等相应进行调整。

Summarize the key message of an article called” Land of the Rising Price”:A burst of inflation has happened in Japan in 2008, which makes the price A broker named Christopher Wood points out that it is definitely But others don’t agree with the John Richards, who works in the Royal Bank of Scotland in Tokyo, claims that the recovery in Japan has depended on exports too However, the demand from Asia, America and Europe has slowed this The rising price causes to reduce companies’ profit margins, while customers’ purchasing power also Richard Jerram, who works in Macquarie Capital Securities in Tokyo, suggests that when the value of savings is changed by inflation, households are possible to transfer savings into other assets in order to get higher But M Wood argues that the bad inflation, which makes the various costs increase, is another type of That will cause rapid and deep change in Japan according to the He strongly believes that the rapid and deep change will happen However, that will not One of important reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by the central bank as quickly as the bank would Another reason is that if money remains cheap, corporate reform is impossible to take So the inflation is not good news for JWhat cause deflation in Japan:Deflation is a process of falling price, which is the opposite of Price levels are highly connected with the relationship between the supply and the To understand and express the definition of deflation simply, there is assumption that we are on an isolated island and there are 10 same goods and ten $00 bills that are able to buy them If everyone wants to get one of them, it is obvious that each good costs $ However, if some people don’t want to get it, the price in each good will decrease because sellers want to sell all of So they have to decrease the price in order to encourage people who don’t want to buy any more buy the This is one of types of deflation, which is caused by decreasing the demand of (InflationD, ND)To express the theory more clearly, let’s see a diagram In this diagram, the horizon axis y represents total product (national income), while the straight axis represents price AD represents aggregate demand curve, while AS represents aggregate supply When the aggregate demand curve drops from AD to AD’, the total product, which depends on the point of intersection between AD curve and AS curve, don’t increase, is still y’ But the price level decreases from P to P’ So this is deflation caused by decreasing the demand of But in the isolated island, if the quantity of money drops to $0, while the number of goods is 10, the price in each good will decreases to $ This is another type of deflation, which is caused by reducing the supply of By the way, the supply of money can also be dropped if someone holds half of money on the island and refuses to spend it on (InflationD, ND)According to the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, it is clear that the consumer price fluctuated at very low level during the last ten That means the purchasing power is low, which is a sign of The situation in the last ten years is caused by decreasing the demand of goods or decreasing the supply of Is deflation good for an economy?In fact, whether deflation is good or not depends on the cause of the If deflation is caused by increasing the goods supply, it will be For example, in the late 19th century, with the industrial revolution happening, the productivity of goods was So the supply of goods obviously went Therefore, the price level Decreasing the goods demand or increasing the goods supply has the same If, however, deflation is caused by reducing money supply, it will be The economy contracted because of lack of People may lose their Thus, banks don’t loan money because people have no ability to pay off Therefore, money supply will fall again, while more people may lose their (InflationD, ND)BOJ’s monetary policyMonetary policy is generally classified as an expansionary policy and a contractionary A policy is referred to as contractionary if it decreases the supply of money or increases the interest An expansionary policy raises the supply of money, or drops the interest Obvious from the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, the gross interest income dropped quickly from 1994 to In other words, the interest rate in the 12 years decreased That means BOJ’s monetary policy was an expansionary Therefore, the supply of money could be increased using this That would activate the aggregate (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2008)Though the policy was on the correct track, I don’t think BOJ was successful in solving the deflation One of important reason is that the time of reducing interest rate was more than 10 years, which was too That means BOJ did not find a suitable interest rate during the 12 Another important reason is that when a burst of inflation has happened in 2008, the aggregate demand is not activated The inflation relies on Japan imports mostly, rather than increasing domestic So the purpose of the policy has not achieved The third reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by BOJ as quickly as BOJ would Bad overseas and domestic economic situation prevent from increasing the interest So generally, BOJ was not successful in solving the Interest rate, exports and exchange rateThe interest rate has very strong effect on the exchange As we all know, the interest rate level depends on the relationship between the demand and the supply in foreign exchange Foreign exchange is one type of financial An investor chooses and holds it because it brings capital Actually, the return of currency in each country is measured by the interest rate in each country’s financial If the interest rate of currency in one country rises, the return will also rise, attracting investors to buy the If the interest rate drops, the return will Therefore, the attraction of the currency is BOJ has kept the interest rate low, which is the lowest of any G8 That means the interest rate of Japanese Yen is lower than many other countries, which leads to increasing capital outflows, reducing capital Thus, investors who hold Japanese Yen will sell the currency, which will make the exchange rate Decreasing exchange rate of Japanese Yen always leads to rising Japanese exports and reducing the First, with the depreciation of Japanese Yen, price of domestic goods is lower than price of foreign So the demand of domestic goods will increase, while the demand of foreign goods will It is good for Japanese exports and international Second, with the increase of the demand of domestic goods, the price level will go up, while the employment will rise, increasing the national The behavior of companies and consumersIn deflation period, the price in the market is As a result, the company profits are So a company is trying its best to make the cost of production lower in order to remain One way to achieve the aim is to reduce the nominal Therefore, people spend less money in purchasing so that they will show the sign of belt- Actually, the deflation lasted for more than 10 So when the inflation is happening, the price level is Therefore, companies expected that the increased price level might solve the problem caused by So they have struggled to pay more wages and hire more workers so that the cost is But unfortunately, rising price level don’t solve the Therefore, company profits are decreasing because the cost is increasing in the inflation In fact, in the short run, even though inflation is happening, people are not responding to that because they don’t know the price in future will be higher than current price, at least in the short

西方经济学论文对边际生产力理论的探讨一、边际生产力理论的局限性  边际生产力理论是新古典经济理论的基石。边际生产力理论是用于阐明在生产中相互合作的各种生产要素或资源所得到的报酬的一种方法。通常情况,当其他要素数量不变,而单位某种生产要素离开(或加入)生产过程时所引起的商品产值的减少(或增加)量,就等于该种生产要素一个单位的服务报酬或其他报酬。这里很明显,决定生产要素的报酬是取决于生产过程中的技术条件。在新古典理论中,一般用生产函数来表明这种投入和产出的技术关系。边际生产力理论用数学公式来表达就是:  厂商的生产函数是Y=F(x[,1],x[,2],x[,3],x[,4]……),Y是生产过程中的产出,x[,1],x[,2]……是生产过程中的投入,F是生产函数。一般情况下,生产函数满足下面假设:产出对生产要素的投入满足一阶偏导数大于零,二阶偏导数小于零,即附图。一阶偏导数大于零表示,在其他投入不变的情况下,任何一种生产要素等量增加,必然带来实物产出的增加,即边际产品大于零,这一点是非常容易理解的,可以说是市场经济条件下的一个公理,厂商没有必要在产量减少时增加一种要素的投入量。二阶偏导数小于零也就是生产函数的凸性假设,表明一种生产要素的边际产品会随该要素的投入量增加而递减的,这是一个比一阶导数大于零较强的假定,这就是经济学中常常使用的边际产品递减规律。“实际上这并不是一个规律,而是大多数生产过程所具有的共同特性”。(注:范里安:《微观经济学:现代观点》,上海三联出版社、上海人民出版社,1994年,第395页。)在生产过程中,任何一种要素的报酬超过了在少使用这种要素时损失的产值时,那么就会少使用一单位该种生产要素,并且如果这种不平衡没有消除,就会继续减少使用这种生产要素,直到相等为止,即:附图,(注:实际上应该要素的报酬应该等于要素的边际生产收入(marginal revenue of product),而不是边际产值(value ofmarginal product),由于新古典的边际生产力理论主要是研究是完全竞争市场,因此二者在量上是相等。)其中w[,i]是x[,i]这种生产要素的报酬(价格),P为产品的价格。这个结论可以很简单地从给定生产函数和厂商利润最大化的条件下得出。  边际生产力理论有两要素形式和多要素形式来说明生产要素的需求量。两要素是指总资本和总劳动,在这种形式下,生产函数的形式是Y=F(L,K),L、K分别是生产过程中投入的劳动和资本的数量。多要素是指在生产过程中使用的可分辨要素的种类,就是在本文开始部分所采用的那种形式。两要素形式可以使边际生产力理论进行简化,但是这个模型存在着一个致命的弱点,就是如何将一个厂商投入的不同质的劳动和不同质的资本进行加总,(注:加总问题是边际生产力理论所遇到的最大的困难,边际生产力需要一个总量劳动和资本的概念,资本的加总只能通过对其价值(格)进行加总的形式来实现,而资本的价格受到资本的边际生产力(利息率)的影响,即维克赛尔效应,从而使边际生产力理论成为一个循环论证。)这也是在上个世纪剑桥资本争论最为激烈的一个问题。多要素形式避免了对不同的劳动和资本进行加总,但这种形式却远离现实,因为这种形式会使生产函数连续可微分的性质难以成立:许多厂商的投入要素都是固定比例,不可能单独地增减一种生产要素而不增减其他的生产要素,即生产要素之间不存在替代性,这样没有办法得出一种要素的边际生产力,因此边际生产力的理论适用范围非常有限。本文在这里分析的是边际生产力理论的适用范围,因此,在这里采用的是两要素生产模型,将厂商的投入抽象地分为劳动和资本,而如何将异质的资本和劳动加总的问题给抛开,而抽象地认为劳动和资本是同质的。这样边际生产力的模型就可以描述成:对于一个厂商的生产函数Y=F(L,K),劳动者的报酬也就是工资附图,资本的报酬也就是利润(息)率附图。二、总额相符问题(Adding-up Problem)  边际生产力在直觉上非常容易被人接受的,因为它体现了一个基本的经济理论原理,那就是其他要素固定不变时,一种要素投入所带来的边际收益等于边际成本,从而使厂商的利润最大化。但是这里存在着一个问题就是:如果每个要素的每一单位都按照相应的边际生产力得到相应报酬,那么厂商的产量是否等于所有的生产要素的边际产品,这就是Y=MP[,L]×L+MP[,K]×K。在1894年,威克斯蒂德在《论分配法则的协调》中详细地论述了这一观点,“这些分配份额加起来等于每个厂商的净产量。”(注:《帕尔格雷夫经济学词典》第1卷,经济科学出版社,1986年,第22-23页;熊彼特:《经济分析史》(第3卷),商务印书馆,1996年,第407-409页。)这个结论的详细描述是:在生产函数是一次(线性)齐次性时,各种投入的生产要素的边际产品乘以其投入量的总和正好等于其产值,这就是总额相符,也就是欧拉定理(Euler's theorem),从而使边际生产力在理论上更加完美。如果用产品的价格和生产要素的报酬来表示,就可以得到各种投入要素的报酬总和正好等于总产值。(注:在欧拉定理Y=MP[,L]×L+MR[,K]×K两边同时乘以产品的价格P,就可以得到Y×P=w×L+r×K。)厂商的(超额)利润等于厂商的收入(总产值)减去各种生产要素的报酬总和(总成本),即总额相符,厂商的利润为零。但是这里存在着一个条件,就是生产函数必须是线性齐次的,即生产是规模报酬不变的。  在新古典经济理论中,通常用生产函数的齐次性来表示规模报酬。齐次性是一个数学概念,它表明一个函数F(x,y)如果满足条件:P(ax,ay)=a[n]F(x,y),这个函数就是n次齐次性。如果n=1时,就是一次齐次性,也称为线性齐次性,即F(ax,ay)=aF(x,y)。如果一个生产函数是n次齐次生产函数,那么当n>1时,该生产函数就是规模报酬递增,n<1时,是规模报酬递减,n=1时,是规模报酬不变。这就意味着总额相符只有在规模报酬不变时,才能成立。同样可以容易证明出:当n<1时,即存在规模报酬递减时,厂商的总产值就小于各种生产要素的得到报酬总和,存在着“总额不足”;当n>1时,即存在规模报酬递增时,厂商的总产值就大于各种生产要素的得到报酬总和,存在着“总额过剩”。那么,谁来弥补“不足”和得到“过剩”呢?很明显,这两种情况下,边际生产力理论存在着重大的缺陷,因为它与规模报酬递增和递减相矛盾,除非可以证明资本主义经济中不存在着这两种情况。在经济中存在规模报酬递减的可能不大,如果存在规模报酬递减,就可以把大企业分割成小企业来生产,而在现实经济中很少出现这种现象。所以一般认为经济是规模报酬不变和递增的。三、规模报酬递增现象的存在性  规模报酬递增是现代经济中普遍存在的现象,是经济发展的必然结果。从资本主义发展的历史来看,生产是逐渐集中,大规模生产可以实行分工,采用先进设备,聘请高级专家,节省管理费用,都能提高生产效率,这些足以表明现代化的生产肯定是存在着规模递增现象。斯密最早提出分工会导致专业化,从而提高劳动生产率,而使规模报酬呈递增。斯拉法在《经济学杂志》1926年12月发表了《竞争条件下的报酬规律》,指出“在纯粹竞争的条件下,只要产量增加伴之有内部经济,厂商便不会处于完全均衡状态”,“递增收益也是同完全竞争的假设不协调的”。从此也就揭开了不完全竞争理论的序幕。也有一些经济学家承认存在着规模报酬递增现象,但是“根据复制的观点,不变规模报酬是最自然现象,但这并不等于说其他情况不可能发生……递增的规模报酬通常在一定的产量范围内适用。”用复制来说明不变规模报酬的存在是有疑问的,这种复制是远离现实的,因为在现实世界,人们基本上看不到厂商扩大产量的方法是在原有规模上扩大,而不是去建造新厂复制原来的工厂,范里安这种认为不变规模报酬是犯了形而上学的错误。但是不管怎么很难否认规模报酬递增的存在。四、边际生产力理论对规模报酬递增的解释  既然规模报酬递增是现代化生产中必然存在的现象,那么边际生产力理论必然要对这种与其相矛盾的规模报酬递增给以解释。  一种解释认为经济中不存在规模报酬递增的现象,之所以产生规模报酬递增,是由于有一种促使规模报酬递增的生产要素被人们忽视了,只要加入新的生产要素,生产函数就不会存在规模递增现象:两种要素的生产函数解释不了现实经济的真实情况,在现代经济中,生产要素也在多元化,科学技术、知识、教育等因素加入到生产函数中去,生产函数成了Y=F(L,K,T,I,E……),从而使生产函数变得越来越复杂,这样处理之后,生产函数就成为线性齐次性,就可以满足于总额相符,从而就使边际生产力学说更加完美,甚至进一步找出科技、知识、教育等在生产过程中的作用来。这种学说存在着一个明显的错误,根据生产要素的性质,生产要素起着两个方面的作用,一是生产过程的投入物,二是要在生产过程中得到相应的报酬。尽管我们可以通过复杂的计算得出科技、知识和教育的边际生产力,但是是谁根据这些要素的边际生产力而得到它的报酬呢?是工人,还是资本家,还是科学家?另外,科技和知识都是体现在劳动和资本中,不能从劳动和资本中独立出来,生产函数的形式应该是Y=F[L(T,I,E……),K(T,I,E……)],这样,从数学的逻辑上分析,自变量之间必然是独立的,即有完全的自由度。如果技术、知识、教育和劳动、资本之间存在着相关性,它们就不可能同时作为生产函数的自变量,即同时成为生产要素。因此,用多生产要素的生产函数使之成为线性齐次性,从而可以使之满足总额相符的方法,是存在着逻辑矛盾。

西方经济学史论文1500字怎么写标题

好的额。。,蓝玫瑰,。 找。 。 阿德里克、

不是论文,而是根据西经所学知识写的事例已上传到附件

这是《红楼梦》中王熙凤的话,在西经中主要是来说明规模不经济的,你可以先将题目原文找出来,然后引入西经中的规模经济以及规模不经济理论,讨论出现规模不经济的原因,并在其中举出具体的事例,或者将事例单独列为一个标题也行,然后结合中国国情探讨一下我国经济中存在规模不经济的事例,最好能提出解决对策。

西方经济学史论文1500字数

西方就业理论演进剖析 就业这一重大的社会经济问题长期以来一直受到西方经济学家的关注,从而形成了各具特色的就业理论。西方经济学家对就业问题的长期研究和探索,形成了适应市场经济需求的多角度、多层次的就业理论。如古典经济学派的就业理论,凯恩斯的充分就业理论,新古典综合学派的就业理论,新凯恩斯主义的工资粘性就业理论等。 (一)古典学派的就业理论 萨伊定律是古典经济学派就业理论的基石,其基本内涵是供给创造需求。该学派经济学家代表人物有马歇尔、庇古等,他们从完全竞争的市场结构出发,认为市场上产品价格和货币工资可以根据市场供求状况自发调整。劳动供给和劳动需求相互作用决定实际工资和就业水平,供求平衡时的就业量就是充分就业水平。进而认为,只要不存在工资刚性,工资率可以自由伸缩,市场机制能自由的发挥调节作用,可使一切可供使用的劳动力资源都被用于生产,劳动力市场总能达到就业均衡,长期持续的非自然失业不可能存在,存在的只是自愿失业和短期性摩擦性失业。 他们认为,解决失业问题的办法是消除货币工资的刚性,使货币工资能够随市场的需求而发生相应的变化。古典学派将自由竞争作为前提条件,主张市场调节平衡就业,否定了失业问题的普遍性。但换个角度理解失业的产生仍然是有可能的,失业问题正是竞争不充分所导致的结果,要解决失业问题首先就应该解决劳动力市场竞争的不充分问题。 (二)凯恩斯的就业理论 凯恩斯就业理论是以有效需求原则为核心,认为就业量取决于有效需求。失业之所以持续不断,是由于资本主义社会一般情况均存在“有效需求不足”。即总供给价格和总需求价格达到均衡时的总需求不足,由此造成较多的社会失业,即不充分就业。凯恩斯主义的促进就业理论实际上主张降低工资,即在不降低名义工资的情况下,降低实际工资。但前提是扩大总需求,因为总需求的扩大,必然会导致通货膨胀,工人名义工资不变,但实际工资相对减少。为实现充分就业,凯恩斯认为,必须摒弃自由放任的经济政策,依靠国家干预,提出需求管理政策,从而达到促进生产,增加就业的目的。 (三)新古典综合学派的就业理论 20世纪60年代末,各主要资本主义国家的经济相继陷入“滞胀”的困境,凯恩斯理论失灵了。因而以托宾、杜生贝等为代表的新古典综合学派经济学家提出“结构性失业问题”,力图用市场结构的变化来解释失业和通货膨胀并发症,认为是微观市场的不完全性和结构变化引起滞胀。得出结构性失业是因经济结构的变化而引起的劳动力供给和需求的结构失调,结构性失业的存在必然引起失业与工作空位并存。由于强大的工会力量使工资易涨不易跌,所以尽管社会上存在着失业,但货币工资却不下降,而只要存在工作空位,货币工资就会迅速上升。于是,失业与工作空位并存就转化为失业与货币工资上涨并存,进而转化为失业与通货膨胀的并发症。该理论主张从就业内容或就业结构角度来解决结构性失业问题,如政府要指导收入政策,即政府要采取措施限制工资和物价的上升,以缓和通胀;注重完善劳动力市场,缓和因劳工市场技术结构变化造成的失业;适当修改完善失业补助金制度,激励失业者就业。 (四)新凯恩斯主义的工资粘性就业理论 新凯恩斯主义的劳动市场理论主要包括名义工资粘性和实际工资粘性两方面。名义工资粘性是由于长期劳动合同的存在和交错调整工资所致,工资通常是由于工会与企业通过谈判订立的合同而固定下来的。在合同有效期限内工资不能随市场供求行情而调整。即使没有工会组织未签订劳动合同的企业,因受有合同的企业粘性工资的影响,工资也不会轻易变动。隐性合同理论认为,雇员与雇主之间随着时间的推移,它们之间会形成某种稳定收入的非正式契约,从而使工资具有粘性。隐性合同导致失业的原因是由于在非对称信息条件下,厂商和工人因信息有限,决定了均衡合同出现无效率的非充分就业,因而通常会解除工人。效率工资论则说明了雇主会主动付给员工高工资,以提高雇员的生产积极性,提高跳槽和偷懒的机会成本同时吸引有能力及高技术人才。内部人——外部人理论则指出,内部人由于受到劳动转换成本的保护,在工资决定上有着重要的讨价还价能力,具有较强的就业优势和地位。致使工资调整主要取决于在职人员而不是失业者,于是,便可能出现非自愿性失业。因而解决失业问题政府就要干预工资合同,要减少工资粘性,增加工资弹性,使工资能够适时适度灵活调整。 (五)反古典经济学的就业理论 “反古典”学派主张放弃自由放任的经济政策,借鉴日本的经济模式及行政主导性的市场经济模式。在就业问题上,强调在保证企业自由用人和求职者自主择业的前提下,在保持企业活力和充分发挥市场机制作用的基础上,国家对市场活动进行宏观调控和政策指导。同时建立稳定就业,劳动力流动平缓、劳资合同和工资差距较小的劳动力模式。

摘要:随着经济全球化的不断深入,来自不同文化背景的人们之间的商务活动日益频繁,因而跨文化谈判中的文化障碍问题已逐渐引起广泛关注。人们已意识到,跨文化谈判失败的主要原因在于谈判双方缺乏对彼此文化背景的了解,以及忽视文化差异对谈判的影响与作用。  关键词:文化背景;文化障碍;价值观念  随着“信息时代”的来临,世界各国的经济发展越来越相互联系和互相依存,各国、各民族的文化也随之相互交融,进一步促进了世界范围的跨文化交际。  一、跨文化商务谈判中的文化障碍  随着国际贸易的增加和经济全球化的不断深入,来自不同文化背景的人们之间的商务活动日益频繁,因而跨文化谈判中的文化障碍问题已逐渐引起广泛关注。下面的案例就从多侧面体现了跨文化商务谈判中的文化障碍。  康沃公司是加拿大一家生产印刷设备的公司。公司派两名商务代表到中国江苏省上海北部的一座小城与一家印刷设备公司谈判。公司总裁查理波顿和市场主任菲比瑞内斯同行。之前该公司从未向加拿大境外销售过设备,两人对中方对他们的热情款待非常高兴。李经理亲自到上海机场接机,然后行驶九十公里开到小城,安排他们住在一个新建的宾馆里。几小时后主人盛宴招待他们,并有很重要的政府官员出席宴会。这种红地毯式的接待令他们对销售前景十分乐观。  第二天上午是观光。他们迫切地想开始谈判,但午饭后却让他们休息。下午一个会说英语的公司雇员来告诉他们说晚上将安排他们去看歌舞演出。第三天终于可以坐下来谈判了,进程非常缓慢。双方先概括介绍自己,加方认为这与销售毫无关系。中方提供翻译,虽然翻译的友好使加方感到很舒适,但翻译环节使沟通缓慢。中方还花大量时间谈论之前曾来过小城的加方贸易代表并问及他。波顿从未见过这位贸易代表,所以无话可说。当轮到加方进行陈述时,他们惊讶地发现竟有十个中方代表隔桌相坐。中方代表不停地微笑并点头赞许。波顿和瑞纳斯准备了充足的数据并有力地证明了五年之内他们公司产量将会翻一倍。最后二位满怀信心地返回了宾馆。  第二天中方代表又增加了四人,并让他们再次解释已经陈述过的事情。他们开始觉得沮丧。中方让他们解释有关技术方面的微小细节。加方两位代表均未涉入如此高科技的技术活动,这是此设备的核心。加方代表尽其所能地解释完后,疲惫地回到了宾馆。  第二天中方代表中的一员指出他们所陈述的内容与他在加拿大时生产总监工程师所说的不一致,中方抓住这一点不放。午餐时加方代表迅速向加拿大发传真索取细节和解释。下午的情景令波顿和瑞纳斯有点不安。谈判过程中一位中年女匆忙进入谈判室与中方谈判领导耳语,随后他立即起身离开。没有任何人对此做出解释。  第二天加方收到了传真,谈判就昨天的问题再次进行了讨论。进程十分缓慢,中方很欣赏加方产品的高质量,但担心一旦产品损坏,他们不会维修。他们希望加方提供维修培训服务。加方提出如果派专人在中方工作数周或数月将会增加巨额开销,他们认为设备不会有问题并且中方完全有能力维护此设备。  最终谈判进入了实质性阶段:价格。这是最艰难的阶段。中方要求打折20%。加方认为这种谈判过于粗暴,他们坚持原价格,并认为此价格非常合理,但在滚筒部件上可打3%的折扣。  尽管之前加方代表听说在中国谈判会很费时间,但他们认为一周的时间是足够宽裕的。但时间飞逝,再有两天他们就要回国了。他们开始询问究竟是什么原因使双方达不成协议,他们需要再就什么问题做进一步讨论。最后的谈判过程中他们竭力使中方讨论未解决的关键问题,但中方似乎并不愿意这么做。  第二天下午告别宴会开始之前双方仍未能达成一致。价格问题基本解决了,但付款方式没有解决,这是难以解决的难题,中方不能保证付款计划,因为这要由市政府最终决定。尽管如此,李经理还是微笑着提到了今后的合作,中加双方过去的友谊,以及他们从加方身上学到很多东西。他们再次签了九个月前已经在加拿大签过的意向书。加方代表失望地回国了,但还希望双方通过传真或邮件进一步讨论销售事宜。  两周后,加方惊愕地得到消息:中方已经从日本生产商手中买下了此设备。他们的设备质量上乘,价格合理,是什么使谈判失败呢?  二、跨文化商务谈判中文化障碍产生的原因分析  在单一文化背景下,谈判过程是可以预见、也是可以准确把握的。然而跨文化谈判则具有不确定性,更充满了挑战性,因为跨文化谈判是不同思维方式、不同沟通方式、不同行为方式之间进行的谈判行为。跨文化谈判失败的主要原因在于谈判双方缺乏对彼此文化背景的了解以及忽视文化差异对谈判的影响与作用。下面就案例中谈判失败的原因逐一进行分析。  (一)国人注意培养关系  中国人谈判焦点不在于谈判主题,而在于建立长期合作的人际关系。因此,谈判初期双方谈论的内容涉及宽泛的议题及社交活动,直到彼此建立相互信任、增进相互了解之后才进入谈判主题。而对西方人而言,谈判焦点就在于实质性的内容,在于交易,而非人际关系。  以中国为代表的东方人,在人际交往中是非常看重感情和人情的。一方面,这源于中国人古老文化和和谐相处、友好往来、团结共事、合作互利的精神和观念。这种处世态度和人际关系有利于交往双方的进一步合作,对商人说来则有利于交易的成功。从这方面讲,这种观念和行为有其有益的一面。这也是为什么中国人求人办事总是礼数先行、中国商人与他人谈生意之前总是先宴请对方的原因。  利奈尔•戴维斯说得好:“在宴席上,人们常常谈论食品,交换一些十分正式的、表示敬意或友谊的词语。从低语境文化的视角出发,人们所谈论的事都不是与个人有关的,也不含有多少信息。人们只是在比其他场合更为精确地遵循一套礼仪规范。这包括彼此敬酒,同时使用一些与相互关系和当时场景相适宜的套话。……交谈是愉悦而轻松的,来自高语境文化的赴宴者将此情景解释为:彼此之间的关系已经发展到可以开始谈生意或谈完生意的地步了。”  “合同属于低语境文化的文件类型。对于西方人说来,合同的含义全在于文字之中。在签署合同之前,一位西方人肯定会审读小号字体印刷部分,这意味着他会十分仔细地关注合同细节以确保没有不利的条款隐藏在用以撰写合同的专用法律术语中。一旦表示赞同,合同就将牢牢约束签约双方,即使签约之后发生了双方都未曾预料的事也不可违约。例如,假如市场情况发生变化,其中一方因此而遭受损失来自低语境文化的签约方不会把它当成更改合同的理由。这种态度对于来自高语境文化的签约方却似乎是不公平的,后者总是习惯于将情景事态的因素纳入考虑之中。假如一个西方人从合同中获得了超过他事先预料的利益,他仅仅会认为他一直是好运相随。假如他亏损了,他就会认为是自己运气不佳。”  “假如签约双方有了争议,则低语境文化的交际者就会竭力通过参照合同条款来解决分歧。而高语境文化的交际者则会更有可能在精确的合同条款之外去考虑公关因素和情景因素。事实上,对于高语境文化的交际者说来,情景因素要比严密的合同条款更为重要。”(Davis, 2004:68-69)  从上面这段论述中,可以清楚地看出,法制观念很重的西方人与人情观念很重的中国人之间在处理彼此关系和相互纷争时的巨大差异。当然我们也应看到,中国近年来随着改革开放的不断深入,随着社会经济的持续发展,人们在保留人情观念中有益因素的同时,正在努力摒弃那种有害的极端人情观。  (二)西方人注重时间和效率  西方人在历史上率先进入工业化时代,科技和经济都较为发达,至今生产力水平已有了迅猛的提高,每一分钟都意味着新的产品问世、新的价值产生,由此而形成的快速的工作和生活节奏使他们深切感到“时间就是金钱”,而无休无止、尽最大可能地追逐利润是他们的奋斗目标,为此他们必须要节约和利用分分秒秒,去创造最大的价值,故而他们看重和珍惜时间,认真对时间进行规划安排,也十分守时。而东方人科技和经济的发展相对滞后,长期的以农业为主的小农经济的生产方式导致其生产和生活节奏缓慢,尤其因他们相对更重视形式、礼仪,不惜在繁文缛节上花费时间,因此他们远不如西方人那么珍惜时间,守时观念相当差。约会时间、计划安排等常常随意变动。对此,萨莫瓦评论道:  “当具有不同文化背景的人们走到一起来的时候,有关时间的观念和实践的运用也颇具有重要性。大多数来自西方文化的人是依据线性空间看待时间的。我们是受时间约束的。我们的时间表和工作日程支配着我们的生活。德国人和瑞士人的时间意识甚至比我们还要强。对他们说来,火车、飞机以及一日三餐都必须始终准时。但有很多文化并非如此。在他们看来,是活动而非钟表决定人们的行动。”   (三)中西方的价值观念不同  西方人特别尊崇个人主义,这源自于西方资本主义制度下生产资料以及财产的私有制观念。美国学者萨莫瓦说:“来自非洲某些国家或地区、古巴以及中国的人多半会认为,企业以及生产手段应当归国家或人民集体所有。另一方面,一些出生在美国或加拿大的人从小到大都会认为,生产手段应该归于拥有唯一业主身份的个人所有,要么归拥有共同业主身份的几个人所有,要么归合股经营公司的许多人共同所有。”在资本主义社会里,为赚得尽可能多的资产和钱财成为绝大多数人的奋斗目标,从而逐步形成以个人为中心的“个性主义”理念以及行为方式。在西方人的心目中,个人主义指的是这样一种信条,即个人的利益应该是至高无上的,一切价值观、权利和职责都起源于个人。它强调个人的能动性、独立性、个人意愿的表达以及个人的隐私性。在西方国家,尤其是美国,个人意识是十分强烈的;个人的权利、财产、隐私、事业、目标等被摆在他人、集体、乃至国家之上,绝对不可分侵犯;而集体或团队的意识则相对淡薄。  集体主义,又称集体本位、集体意识或团队观念,是指看重集体利益、重视集体力量、强调集体作用、主张依靠集体、注重协作配合、提倡团结奋斗的观念。一般而言,贫穷落后的国家 (尤其是非资本主义的发展中国家)、民族或种族通常都崇尚集体主义精神,甚至在美国文化影响下的非洲裔美国人也尊崇集体主义。据Triandis估算,全世界70%的人口生活在具有集体主义特征的文化中(Triandis, 1990:48)。这或许是由于他们都属于弱势群体,长期以来在经济、科技等领域的发展滞后不仅造成国家的经济基础薄弱,而且导致个人的能力与机遇的极大缩水,使得个人无论是与自然作斗争,还是谋求个人在社会中的生存和发展,都更加依赖于国家、他人或社会组织的集体力量。  在中国,数千年来中国思想文化特别是儒教、道教以及佛教历来强调“以和为贵”、尊崇“天人合一”、注重人情亲情和团结友爱的传统,是导致中国人看重和依赖家庭、团体和社会力量的重要原因之一。  不同的文化、民族、国家拥有不同程度的个人主义或集体主义观念,这同样也表现为一个连续体,有些国家的人个人主义意识更强烈一些,有些国家的人则集体主义思想更浓厚一些。其中,经济越发达的国家,其个人主义观念越强烈;经济越不发达的国家,其集体主义意识越浓厚。  三、结论  随着经济全球化的不断深入,人们已意识到,跨文化谈判失败的主要原因在于谈判双方缺乏对彼此文化背景的了解以及忽视文化差异对谈判的影响与作用。在单一文化背景下,谈判过程是可以预见、也是可以准确把握的。然而跨文化谈判则具有不确定性,更充满了挑战性,因为跨文化谈判是不同思维方式、不同沟通方式、不同行为方式之间进行的谈判行为。首先,我们应正视并承认本民族以外的种种不同的民族文化;在继续弘扬本民族优良文化传统的同时,尊重其他民族的文化传统、社会习俗、风土人情,并虚心学习乃至接收吸纳其他民族的优良文化传统。其次,深入了解、认真研究其他民族文化的内涵和精髓,找出本民族文化与其他文化之间的异同,研究跨文化交际的内在规律,掌握跨文化商务谈判的知识、技能及正确策略,恰当运用这些技能与策略,在跨文化商务谈判过程中获得成功。

Summarize the key message of an article called” Land of the Rising Price”:A burst of inflation has happened in Japan in 2008, which makes the price A broker named Christopher Wood points out that it is definitely But others don’t agree with the John Richards, who works in the Royal Bank of Scotland in Tokyo, claims that the recovery in Japan has depended on exports too However, the demand from Asia, America and Europe has slowed this The rising price causes to reduce companies’ profit margins, while customers’ purchasing power also Richard Jerram, who works in Macquarie Capital Securities in Tokyo, suggests that when the value of savings is changed by inflation, households are possible to transfer savings into other assets in order to get higher But M Wood argues that the bad inflation, which makes the various costs increase, is another type of That will cause rapid and deep change in Japan according to the He strongly believes that the rapid and deep change will happen However, that will not One of important reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by the central bank as quickly as the bank would Another reason is that if money remains cheap, corporate reform is impossible to take So the inflation is not good news for JWhat cause deflation in Japan:Deflation is a process of falling price, which is the opposite of Price levels are highly connected with the relationship between the supply and the To understand and express the definition of deflation simply, there is assumption that we are on an isolated island and there are 10 same goods and ten $00 bills that are able to buy them If everyone wants to get one of them, it is obvious that each good costs $ However, if some people don’t want to get it, the price in each good will decrease because sellers want to sell all of So they have to decrease the price in order to encourage people who don’t want to buy any more buy the This is one of types of deflation, which is caused by decreasing the demand of (InflationD, ND)To express the theory more clearly, let’s see a diagram In this diagram, the horizon axis y represents total product (national income), while the straight axis represents price AD represents aggregate demand curve, while AS represents aggregate supply When the aggregate demand curve drops from AD to AD’, the total product, which depends on the point of intersection between AD curve and AS curve, don’t increase, is still y’ But the price level decreases from P to P’ So this is deflation caused by decreasing the demand of But in the isolated island, if the quantity of money drops to $0, while the number of goods is 10, the price in each good will decreases to $ This is another type of deflation, which is caused by reducing the supply of By the way, the supply of money can also be dropped if someone holds half of money on the island and refuses to spend it on (InflationD, ND)According to the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, it is clear that the consumer price fluctuated at very low level during the last ten That means the purchasing power is low, which is a sign of The situation in the last ten years is caused by decreasing the demand of goods or decreasing the supply of Is deflation good for an economy?In fact, whether deflation is good or not depends on the cause of the If deflation is caused by increasing the goods supply, it will be For example, in the late 19th century, with the industrial revolution happening, the productivity of goods was So the supply of goods obviously went Therefore, the price level Decreasing the goods demand or increasing the goods supply has the same If, however, deflation is caused by reducing money supply, it will be The economy contracted because of lack of People may lose their Thus, banks don’t loan money because people have no ability to pay off Therefore, money supply will fall again, while more people may lose their (InflationD, ND)BOJ’s monetary policyMonetary policy is generally classified as an expansionary policy and a contractionary A policy is referred to as contractionary if it decreases the supply of money or increases the interest An expansionary policy raises the supply of money, or drops the interest Obvious from the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, the gross interest income dropped quickly from 1994 to In other words, the interest rate in the 12 years decreased That means BOJ’s monetary policy was an expansionary Therefore, the supply of money could be increased using this That would activate the aggregate (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2008)Though the policy was on the correct track, I don’t think BOJ was successful in solving the deflation One of important reason is that the time of reducing interest rate was more than 10 years, which was too That means BOJ did not find a suitable interest rate during the 12 Another important reason is that when a burst of inflation has happened in 2008, the aggregate demand is not activated The inflation relies on Japan imports mostly, rather than increasing domestic So the purpose of the policy has not achieved The third reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by BOJ as quickly as BOJ would Bad overseas and domestic economic situation prevent from increasing the interest So generally, BOJ was not successful in solving the Interest rate, exports and exchange rateThe interest rate has very strong effect on the exchange As we all know, the interest rate level depends on the relationship between the demand and the supply in foreign exchange Foreign exchange is one type of financial An investor chooses and holds it because it brings capital Actually, the return of currency in each country is measured by the interest rate in each country’s financial If the interest rate of currency in one country rises, the return will also rise, attracting investors to buy the If the interest rate drops, the return will Therefore, the attraction of the currency is BOJ has kept the interest rate low, which is the lowest of any G8 That means the interest rate of Japanese Yen is lower than many other countries, which leads to increasing capital outflows, reducing capital Thus, investors who hold Japanese Yen will sell the currency, which will make the exchange rate Decreasing exchange rate of Japanese Yen always leads to rising Japanese exports and reducing the First, with the depreciation of Japanese Yen, price of domestic goods is lower than price of foreign So the demand of domestic goods will increase, while the demand of foreign goods will It is good for Japanese exports and international Second, with the increase of the demand of domestic goods, the price level will go up, while the employment will rise, increasing the national The behavior of companies and consumersIn deflation period, the price in the market is As a result, the company profits are So a company is trying its best to make the cost of production lower in order to remain One way to achieve the aim is to reduce the nominal Therefore, people spend less money in purchasing so that they will show the sign of belt- Actually, the deflation lasted for more than 10 So when the inflation is happening, the price level is Therefore, companies expected that the increased price level might solve the problem caused by So they have struggled to pay more wages and hire more workers so that the cost is But unfortunately, rising price level don’t solve the Therefore, company profits are decreasing because the cost is increasing in the inflation In fact, in the short run, even though inflation is happening, people are not responding to that because they don’t know the price in future will be higher than current price, at least in the short

西方经济学论文1500字怎么写

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经济全球化时代的后发优势与发展中国家的对策 ● 论文报告 ● 作品简介 根据联合国开发计划署发表的1999年度《人类发展报告》,占全球1/5的人口生活在收入水平最高的国家,他们拥有全球国内生产总值的86%,全球出口市场的82%,外国直接投资的68%,全球电话总数的74%;

Summarize the key message of an article called” Land of the Rising Price”:A burst of inflation has happened in Japan in 2008, which makes the price A broker named Christopher Wood points out that it is definitely But others don’t agree with the John Richards, who works in the Royal Bank of Scotland in Tokyo, claims that the recovery in Japan has depended on exports too However, the demand from Asia, America and Europe has slowed this The rising price causes to reduce companies’ profit margins, while customers’ purchasing power also Richard Jerram, who works in Macquarie Capital Securities in Tokyo, suggests that when the value of savings is changed by inflation, households are possible to transfer savings into other assets in order to get higher But M Wood argues that the bad inflation, which makes the various costs increase, is another type of That will cause rapid and deep change in Japan according to the He strongly believes that the rapid and deep change will happen However, that will not One of important reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by the central bank as quickly as the bank would Another reason is that if money remains cheap, corporate reform is impossible to take So the inflation is not good news for JWhat cause deflation in Japan:Deflation is a process of falling price, which is the opposite of Price levels are highly connected with the relationship between the supply and the To understand and express the definition of deflation simply, there is assumption that we are on an isolated island and there are 10 same goods and ten $00 bills that are able to buy them If everyone wants to get one of them, it is obvious that each good costs $ However, if some people don’t want to get it, the price in each good will decrease because sellers want to sell all of So they have to decrease the price in order to encourage people who don’t want to buy any more buy the This is one of types of deflation, which is caused by decreasing the demand of (InflationD, ND)To express the theory more clearly, let’s see a diagram In this diagram, the horizon axis y represents total product (national income), while the straight axis represents price AD represents aggregate demand curve, while AS represents aggregate supply When the aggregate demand curve drops from AD to AD’, the total product, which depends on the point of intersection between AD curve and AS curve, don’t increase, is still y’ But the price level decreases from P to P’ So this is deflation caused by decreasing the demand of But in the isolated island, if the quantity of money drops to $0, while the number of goods is 10, the price in each good will decreases to $ This is another type of deflation, which is caused by reducing the supply of By the way, the supply of money can also be dropped if someone holds half of money on the island and refuses to spend it on (InflationD, ND)According to the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, it is clear that the consumer price fluctuated at very low level during the last ten That means the purchasing power is low, which is a sign of The situation in the last ten years is caused by decreasing the demand of goods or decreasing the supply of Is deflation good for an economy?In fact, whether deflation is good or not depends on the cause of the If deflation is caused by increasing the goods supply, it will be For example, in the late 19th century, with the industrial revolution happening, the productivity of goods was So the supply of goods obviously went Therefore, the price level Decreasing the goods demand or increasing the goods supply has the same If, however, deflation is caused by reducing money supply, it will be The economy contracted because of lack of People may lose their Thus, banks don’t loan money because people have no ability to pay off Therefore, money supply will fall again, while more people may lose their (InflationD, ND)BOJ’s monetary policyMonetary policy is generally classified as an expansionary policy and a contractionary A policy is referred to as contractionary if it decreases the supply of money or increases the interest An expansionary policy raises the supply of money, or drops the interest Obvious from the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, the gross interest income dropped quickly from 1994 to In other words, the interest rate in the 12 years decreased That means BOJ’s monetary policy was an expansionary Therefore, the supply of money could be increased using this That would activate the aggregate (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2008)Though the policy was on the correct track, I don’t think BOJ was successful in solving the deflation One of important reason is that the time of reducing interest rate was more than 10 years, which was too That means BOJ did not find a suitable interest rate during the 12 Another important reason is that when a burst of inflation has happened in 2008, the aggregate demand is not activated The inflation relies on Japan imports mostly, rather than increasing domestic So the purpose of the policy has not achieved The third reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by BOJ as quickly as BOJ would Bad overseas and domestic economic situation prevent from increasing the interest So generally, BOJ was not successful in solving the Interest rate, exports and exchange rateThe interest rate has very strong effect on the exchange As we all know, the interest rate level depends on the relationship between the demand and the supply in foreign exchange Foreign exchange is one type of financial An investor chooses and holds it because it brings capital Actually, the return of currency in each country is measured by the interest rate in each country’s financial If the interest rate of currency in one country rises, the return will also rise, attracting investors to buy the If the interest rate drops, the return will Therefore, the attraction of the currency is BOJ has kept the interest rate low, which is the lowest of any G8 That means the interest rate of Japanese Yen is lower than many other countries, which leads to increasing capital outflows, reducing capital Thus, investors who hold Japanese Yen will sell the currency, which will make the exchange rate Decreasing exchange rate of Japanese Yen always leads to rising Japanese exports and reducing the First, with the depreciation of Japanese Yen, price of domestic goods is lower than price of foreign So the demand of domestic goods will increase, while the demand of foreign goods will It is good for Japanese exports and international Second, with the increase of the demand of domestic goods, the price level will go up, while the employment will rise, increasing the national The behavior of companies and consumersIn deflation period, the price in the market is As a result, the company profits are So a company is trying its best to make the cost of production lower in order to remain One way to achieve the aim is to reduce the nominal Therefore, people spend less money in purchasing so that they will show the sign of belt- Actually, the deflation lasted for more than 10 So when the inflation is happening, the price level is Therefore, companies expected that the increased price level might solve the problem caused by So they have struggled to pay more wages and hire more workers so that the cost is But unfortunately, rising price level don’t solve the Therefore, company profits are decreasing because the cost is increasing in the inflation In fact, in the short run, even though inflation is happening, people are not responding to that because they don’t know the price in future will be higher than current price, at least in the short

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