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中西服装文化对比研究论文

发布时间:2024-07-08 07:33:06

中西服装文化对比研究论文

Abstract: Dress culture is a cultural phenomenon unique to human beings. As it has different aesthetic ideas, different dressing concepts and different dress etiquette in China and west, it forms Chinese and western dress culture of the different connotation and characteristics. This thesis is divided into four major sections. The first part describes the different features of Chinese and western dress and why people wear clothing. The second part describes cultural differences between Chinese and western clothing. The third part gives an analysis of Chinese and western dress culture. The last part describes Chinese and western dress aesthetic culture and dress concept. Based on the analysis, the thesis finally draws a conclusion. Chinese and western dress culture each has rich connotation and distinct characteristics, which are precious cultural legacy which is left by human ancestors and are the world culture heritage. At the same time, we treasure our own civilization of five thousand years instead of belittling ourselves. It is significant to promote and develop our unique costume culture. We are confident and make contributions to realizing the rejuvenation of our Chinese nation and enriching the clothing culture of the whole world. Key words: Chinese and western clothing; culture;differences;aesthetic culture and clothing concepts 摘要摘要摘要摘要::::服饰文化是人类特有的文化现象。由于中西方各民族的审美观念、着装理念和服饰礼仪的不同,从而形成了不同内涵、不同特色的中西方服饰文化。本文共分为四部分。第一部分主要介绍了中西服饰的不同特征以及为什么人要穿衣服,第二部分写中西方服饰的差异,第三部分写导致中西方服饰文化差异的原因,第四部分则写中西方服饰审美文化和着装理念。通过以上简单的论述,最后得出结论,中西方服饰文化各具有丰富的内涵和鲜明的特色,她们都是人类祖先留下来的宝贵文化遗产 ,是世界文化的瑰宝。与此同时,我们应该珍惜自己五千年的文明而不是贬低自己的文明。促进和发展我们独特的民族服饰文化具有重要的意义。为了实现我们中华民族的文化复兴和丰富整个世界的文化,让我们自信起来吧! 关键词关键词关键词关键词::::中西服饰;文化;差异性;审美文化与着装理念Introduction Costume culture, carried by costume, is a respect of our physical and spiritual life and a mixture of our psychological activities like consciousness, emotion, idea and ideal. The rapid development of advanced technology makes multiculturalism stand out and also makes conflicts between China and the West increase. In that case, it becomes more and more important to recognize the similarities and differences of costume culture between China and the West. Nowadays, the whole world is, to some extent, dominated by the western costume culture, which has wound its way into the daily life of the whole world, together with technology, life style and values from the West. Quite popular in China, it’s nominally called “internationalization” or “globalization”. In recent years, the costume industry of China has developed swiftly. The “international” costume, featured by the western costume culture, has become a pretty important part of our daily life. However, as our economy takes off, international status rises and living standard improves, a wave of national costume culture resurgence is rising. Moreover, people from the West pay more and more attention to the giant dragon in the East——China. Western costume designers constantly introduce Chinese costume cultural elements to their latest designs. Those phenomena arouse a series of thoughts: what distinguishes Chinese costume culture from the western one? Are there any similarities between them? What kind of costume culture will we Chinese hold as the mainstream in the future, the so-called “international” western one, the Chinese one or the fusion of the two? To obtain the answers to these questions, we are supposed to study and contrast carefully the characteristics and developing processes of them, and then draw some regularity. To contrast the costume culture between China and the West, it is necessary for us to master a good knowledge of the Chinese and western costume cultural 1 Chinese and western dress The different features of Chinese and western dress China is known as “Xia” as it’s a land of propriety, and it’s also known as “Hua” with the beauty of its costume. (①《左传》p83) Our national costume is Hanfu. It originated in the Yanhuang era, formed in the Spring and Autumn Period and officially took form in Han Dynasty. That’s the reason why it’s called “Hanfu”. Since then, in spite of historical evolutions of all ages, their basic characteristics have never changed. Hanfu, on the whole, can be divided into four developing stages: Zhou Han Hanfu, Wei Jin Hanfu, Sui Tang Hanfu and Song Ming Hanfu. Zhou Han Hanfu was featured by dignity and simplicity, while Wei Jin Hanfu by chic and elegance, Sui Tang Hanfu by dignified, graceful, elegant and poised style. Hanfu in Song and Ming Dynasties epitomizes the characteristics of the past-simple, dignified, elegant, etc. In Qing Dynasty, Hanfu was forbidden by the government and disappeared from the land of China. The main features of Chinese clothing are focusing on the right collar’s overlap, the band deducted hidden, big sleeves, no buttons and using string binding, giving the impression of free and easy flowing. These characteristics are obviously different from those of other ethnic costumes. Hanfu is divided into uniform and common clothing. With strict standards, uniform is dressed on formal occasions while the common clothing, without long sleeves, is very convenient to people’s daily life. However, the western clothing is different form the Chinese clothing. The West belongs to Marine civilization, it emphasizes the subjective and objective separation and that we should rationally treat clothing, advocate releasing personality, stress dress effect and be good at showing beautiful the posture of the body. Besides, we use various clipping, color collocation means to perfect bodily curve and give a person with visual comfort in the modeling. A suit, also known as a business suit, comprises a collection of matching clothing consisting of: a coat﹙commonly known as a jacket﹚,a waistcoat﹙optional﹚﹙USA vest﹚for men, a pair of trousers﹙USA pants﹚, or for women, a shirt or trousers. A suit is generally accompanied by torment, a shirt and tie or for women, a blouse. Why people wear clothingChinese people are concerned more about its social function of helping to rule a country well than that of keeping warm or decorating. It has a lot to do with ruling a country to regulate the dressing way of the common people. Nevertheless, the westerners pay more attention to its wealth value and function. Therefore, people put on clothing for functional and social reasons. The functional reason The first use of clothing is to resist the cold and cover the body. Functions of clothing include providing the human body protection against extremes of climate (extreme heat, icy winters, and drenching storms) and protection against insects, noxious, chemicals, and contact with abrasive substances. In sum, clothing protects human beings against anything that might injure the naked, unprotected human body. The social reason Clothing also delivers social messages to other humans. Social messages sent by clothing, accessories, and decorations can involve social status, occupation, ethnic and religious belief, marital status, cultural degree and sexual availability, etc. For example, only Roman citizens can wear “Toga” in Rome while dragon robe can only be dressed by the emperor in China.

1、衣服颜色的选择有所不同

自古以来,中国就有一种倡导红色的民族心理。在中国服饰文化中,红色是最吉祥,最节日,最昂贵的颜色。在古罗马时期,西方服饰以白色意义建立,纯粹和紫色象征着高贵的色彩偏好,这意味着注重赋予色彩一定的情感意义。

2、服装特征的差异

与中国相比,西方服装的色彩更具个性,主要体现在突厥人的性别人格和自我个性。性别人格主要表现在男性要穿平静的颜色,而女性则应穿着色彩斑斓的礼服。自我个性主要表现在“三不”:无论性别,无论季节,不论年龄。

3、衣服结构的差异

中式服装结构是整体扁平型,强调立体空间的效果,服装直而松散。西式服装结构分为立体,强调立体效果,服装更贴切。

扩展资料

导致中西方服饰差异的原因分析

1、中西服饰文化的差异

中国几千年来的历史进程中,我们的祖先创造了底蕴深厚的宽衣服饰文化,形成了特有的美学与哲学观念,与西方截然不同。

西方则强调主观世界与客观世界分离,明确提出主观为我,客观为物,“物”与“我”是相对立的,不容混淆的,致使他们习惯于理性观察世界和探讨规律,并形成一种追求自然法则以获得真理的作法。因而,表现出以一种理性的或科学性的态度对待服饰。

2、中西方美学观念的差异

中国服饰美学观念表现在女装造型上的是意象的结构。

这种平面的直线与曲线的裁剪方法使衣服适体又不完全合体,不裸露张扬也不尽力束缚,在遮体的隐约之中含蓄地显现了流畅婉约,温情流动的人体曲线美,造型意识是节奏化的,让视点随着自己的心愿移动,使生命之体在宽衣的帖体与离体之间流露气韵。

我国传统的服装空间造型是借“虚与实”、“明与暗”的节奏表达出来。西方的服装空间意识是在中世纪以后形成的,反映了西方人对空间的探求心理,渴望占据更多的空间,于是增大服装造型的体积,将服装视为扩大自我肉体的一种工具。

这种夸张的服装造型使人与自然整体之间,人与人的个体之间保持着一定的距离,反映了西方人的宇宙观,也反映了人与自然万物、心灵与环境、主观与客观的对立性。由于东方与西方不同的哲学美学观念在服装上创造了不同的基本造型,体现了不同的精神气韵。

参考资料来源:百度百科-中国服饰

参考资料来源:百度百科-西方服装史

对中西文化进行了深入的探源分析,通过对比研究,剖析其不同的自然观、世界观,寻求不同意识形态的表征语言。下文是我为大家整理的关于中西文化对比论文的范文,欢迎大家阅读参考!

中西禁忌文化对比研究

摘 要:禁忌是世界各民族共有的文化现象,是跨文化交际中的一大障碍,本文通过对中西文化禁忌的对比研究,提高人们的文化意识,避免交际冲突和失败,以此提高跨文化交际能力。

关键词:禁忌;文化差异;跨文化交际能力

禁忌(taboo) 源于太平洋汤加群岛的Togan(汤加语),是一种普遍的文化现象,指通过禁止人们实施某种行为或者回避某些话语表达对神灵的敬畏或达到消灾避祸目的的规范。由于文化不同,各国间的禁忌习俗也不尽相同。

禁忌是世界各国共有的文化现象,只是禁忌的内容和形式有所不同。禁忌几乎无处不在,按照禁忌的范畴来分,可分为宗教禁忌和生活禁忌,其中生活禁忌包含其中生活禁忌包含饮食禁忌、服饰禁忌、婚姻禁忌、丧葬禁忌等方面,本文主要从宗教和生活禁忌两个方面探讨各国文化的异同。

一、宗教禁忌

世界各国人民都有不同的信仰,英语国家的人主要信仰基督教,另外还有天主教、新教和东正教。中国的宗教的有佛教、道教和伊斯兰教。宗教不同,禁忌也有很大差异。

1.基督教禁忌

基督教忌讳拜除上帝以外的偶像,进入教堂要严肃,保持安静,以表达对神的敬意。忌食带血的食物,忌衣冠不整和在聚会或礼拜中吸烟等。同时, 在西方信奉基督教的国家里,人们都记得耶稣被叛徒出卖,钉死在十字架上的故事。因此在耶稣受难日的当天,绝对不能从事与耶稣在十字架上受难有象征性联系的事情,如:理发、钉马蹄,钉钉子等。

2.天主教禁忌

天主教是基督教的三大教派之一,除基督教的某些禁忌外,天主教还有自身独特的禁忌。如:天主教的主教、修女和神父是不能结婚的,因此他们的相关隐私如子女问题是不能问及的。参加丧礼忌穿色泽艳丽的衣服,忌说笑;丧礼后两三星期死者亲属忌见客人,一年内忌参加大型宴会或舞会等。

3.佛教禁忌

佛教禁忌包含身体行为方面的禁忌如不杀生,不偷盗,不淫邪;语言方面的禁忌如不妄语,不恶口;意识方面的禁忌如不贪欲等。因此,信奉佛教的人忌吃荤食、不结婚、不蓄财。僧侣和教徒非常注重头部,忌讳别人提着物品从头部经过,忌随便抚摸小孩子的头部。忌当着僧侣的面杀生,喝酒,吃肉。女士面对僧侣忌穿着暴露;对于女信徒,在生理期间不得进入寺院朝拜,以免亵渎神像。

4.伊斯兰教禁忌

伊斯兰教是世界三大宗教之一,信奉者遍布世界各个国家和地区,在饮食方面,信仰者忌吃自死和非正常死亡的动物,忌饮酒。妇女忌外出工作,忌与男子相互观看,妇女在陌生人面前要带面纱。(《中国实用禁忌大全》,1991)①他们认为妇女除双手、双足和面部外,其余身体部位,不能显露给丈夫以外的男子观看。在卫生方面,禁止用右手处理污秽事物,如大小便均需用左,忌讳用左手给人传递物品尤其是事物。

二、生活禁忌

生活中禁忌很多,比如在英国,避免问他人私事,不能插队,忌购物时讨价还价等。下面着重谈一下饮食和饮酒方面的禁忌。

1.饮食禁忌

饮食是生活的重要组成部分,饮食禁忌包含饮食内容和饮食方式两个方面。中国人的饮食禁忌主要表现在饮食规矩而不是饮食内容上。中国人几乎什么都吃,包括动物的头脚和内脏。英语国家的人忌吃肥肉、粘骨,忌食动物的头脚或内脏制成的食品。忌食狗肉、蛇肉等特殊动物制成的食品。忌食大蒜等有酸辣味道的食品。在饮食规矩方面他们也有一些禁忌,如喝汤时忌出声,进餐时忌狼吞虎咽,用刀叉进菜时忌叮当作响。餐毕,刀叉忌乱放。忌当众挑牙,口中有食物时讲话。

2.饮酒禁忌

中国和英语国家在饮酒禁忌方面有较大差异。西方酒类繁多,讲究不同场合,不同饭菜配不同的酒。比如,饭前喝开胃酒,饭中喝佐餐酒,饭后喝鸡尾酒或威士忌酒等。隆重的宴会上,他们会一道菜换一种酒,有时会把几种酒参在一起混饮。而中国人主张隆重场合喝一种酒,混饮现象更是少见。西方人喝酒忌畅饮,一醉方休,而中国人忌牛饮或急饮。主人给客人斟酒宜勤,但忌浅、忌溢。

三、社交禁忌

在英语国家里,拜访某人需提前预约,否则会打乱别人的安排,造成不便。突然造访被视为粗鲁无礼的表现。以前中国人除了大事没有预约访客的习惯,但随着社会节奏的较快,预约访客逐渐开始实行,但没有那么严格。在预约到达时间上,中西方也存在差异。在西方晚到十分钟被视为正常现象,美国人习惯晚到3-5分钟,因为一般情况下女主人忙于饭菜,饭前5分钟才有时间换衣服,早到会使主人感到尴尬。在中国,人们习惯于提前4-5分钟到达以示尊敬。

在西方国家,隐私是最大的禁忌。与西方人交谈时切忌谈论涉及个人隐私的问题如年龄、收入、婚姻等。而在中国上述问题则被作为关注的话题加以讨论。中国人也有忌谈的东西如涉及个人尊严、缺点、短处等方面的事情。

在英语国家,有一火不点三支烟的忌讳。也就是说点一次火只能连续给两个人点烟,如果给第三个人点烟时需重新点火,否则会给其中一个人带来不便。

英语国家的人们在传统的节日互送小礼品是常有的事儿,但忌送重礼,重礼被认为是一种行贿行为。在美国,忌讳在公共场合或者业务交往过程中送礼,忌讳送有公司标志的东西(好像是在为公司做广告)。在英语国家,毫无缘由的送礼会使受礼者感到莫名其妙,这和中国相似。

四、其他禁忌

关于颜色的忌讳。在欧美国家,尽量少用黑色,比利时人忌讳蓝色,巴西人忌讳黄色。在中国,忌用红笔写自己的名字和写信。

关于数字的忌讳。西方人把“十三”视为不吉利的数字,公共场合尽量避免使用这个数字。“星期五”在西方被视为黑色星期五。据说耶稣是在这一天被钉在十字架上的,亚当夏娃是在这一天偷吃禁果的,大洪水也是在这一天爆发的。

中国人忌讳使用“四”和“三”(散的谐音),在喜庆场合避免使用这些数字。

由此可见,不同的国家和民族有不同的禁忌,不了解对方国家的禁忌就会导致友谊破裂,交际失败,种族冲突等严重问题。在跨文化交际的过程中,要想达到交际成功,避免文化冲突,必须了解对方的文化禁忌。通过深入的对比研究,提高文化意识,减少文化冲突,促进跨文化交际的顺利进行。

参考文献:

[1] 杨宗、聂嘉恩、郭全胜,《中国实用禁忌大全》,1991,上海:上海文化出版社

[2] 胡文中、杜学增,《中英文化习俗比较》,1998,北京:北京外语教学与研究出版社

[3] 李建军、李贵苍,《跨文化交际》,2011,武汉:武汉大学出版社

中西餐桌礼仪文化禁忌的对比

摘 要:随着各国之间的交流日益密切,了解西方的餐桌礼仪文化对于了解西方文化至关重要。本文主要从餐具摆放及使用方面介绍中西餐桌礼仪文化的差异,来比较中西文方餐桌礼仪禁忌的差异,并剖析这些差异背景,加深我们的了解。

关键词:禁忌;餐桌;礼仪;中西方

一、引言

餐桌礼仪在日常生活中扮演着重要的角色,在中西方文化交流中的作用自然也不可小觑。中西方餐桌礼仪文化主要由入席离席、餐具使用与摆放、上菜顺序及品酒四个方面组成。本文旨在介绍中西餐桌礼仪文化禁忌的差异,主要从餐具摆放及使用这一方面来比较中西文方餐桌礼仪禁忌的差异,并剖析这些差异背景,加深对西方文化的了解。

二、问卷的数据分析

通过对问卷进行发放,采访被调查者,我们了解到大家对中西方餐桌礼仪禁忌的认识很局限,并且极少数人对其后的文化背景进行过探析,下面是我们分析问卷的详细情况。下面是我们分析问卷的详细情况,通过分析问卷,我们可以得出被调查者中大二的较多,占有效百分比为;大一占,大三占,而大四的最少,占有效百分比为。被调查者中英语类所占比例为,非英语类占,英语类和非英语类所占比例几乎相当。通过这些问卷的结果显示被调查者对中西餐桌礼仪文化的禁忌了解程度一般,而相当一部分人对此不了解。

具体分析问卷得出,大家对于极少数禁忌了解比较深,但是却很少有几个人了解到其中的文化渊源,对于其它中西文化餐桌礼仪禁忌的了解有限,有待加强。因此,我们将主要从中西文化餐桌的餐具使用及摆放这方面的对比和背景进行分析,系统的分析中西文化餐桌礼仪并究其根源。

三、正 文

餐桌礼仪在日常生活中扮演着重要的角色,也体现了中西方文化的差异。

餐具的摆放及使用

(1)筷子的摆放、使用及禁忌(忌讳、讲究)

通常就餐之前,在中国筷子的摆放应该放在饭碗的右侧,并且一定要两端对齐的整齐地摆放。如果是就餐期间使用筷子夹完菜之后,但是并没有连续进食,筷子则应整齐地竖向饭碗的正中间。

在中国餐桌上会看到一些这样的场景,客人拿起筷子夹菜时会举棋不定,不知道夹什么好,这种现象被称为“疑筷”,在正式的场合中疑这是较为忌讳的,在非正式的场合中则不是很严格。在夹菜时一些客人用筷子在菜盘里来来回回扒拉到底要夹什么菜,这种现象被称为“脏筷”。脏筷从浅层意义上来讲是不礼貌的。有时候大家会在中国的餐桌上看到两个人同时夹同一道菜时,不小心筷子撞在一起的情形,这一现象被称之为“抢筷”。为避免尴尬,人们在遇到这种情况时会巧妙地半开玩笑地说一句:“让我来帮你夹怎么样?”或者一方表示谦让地让对方来先夹。一般在连续就进餐时,筷子上仍然留着吃上一道菜留下的残迹就去夹菜的情况被称之为“粘筷”,这是忌讳的,所以在打算夹菜时要轻轻小嘬筷子,来避免夹别的菜时筷子上还粘着东西。

在吃放间隙聊天的时候,筷子的一大禁忌就是“指筷”,及用筷子指人。在用餐之时,最为忌讳的是“供筷”,就是将筷子插在饭菜上或者自己的饭碗中央。在中国的传统当中,一般在祭奠去世的人会上香叩拜,如果将筷子插在饭菜中央就与这一情形及其相似,因此,供筷不论在正式的还是非正式的中国餐桌上都是最大的禁忌之一。

除了以上描述的之外,中餐当中使用筷子的禁忌还有忌“刺筷”,即在夹不起菜的时候将筷子当叉子用,扎着夹;忌“别筷”,就是拿筷子当刀使用,用筷子撕扯肉类菜;忌“泪筷”,即在夹菜的时候使菜上有的汤汁淋了一桌;忌“敲筷子”。在等待就餐时,不能坐在桌边一手拿一根筷子随意敲打或用筷子敲打碗盏或茶杯。忌“叉筷”。 筷子不能一横一竖交叉摆放,不能一根大头,一根小头。用餐完毕,筷子应整齐地搁在靠碗右边的桌上。

(2)西方餐具的摆放、使用以及禁忌

相对于中餐,西餐的餐具则更为复杂。狭义上的西餐餐具有:刀、叉、匙三大件。刀子分为食用刀、鱼刀、肉刀(刀口有锯齿,用以切牛排、猪排等)、黄油刀和水果刀。叉子分为食用叉、鱼叉、肉叉和虾叉。匙子则有汤匙、甜食匙、茶匙。公用刀、叉、匙的规格明显大于餐用刀叉。而广义上的西餐餐具则包含:刀、叉、匙、盘、杯、餐巾等。其中盘又有菜盘、布丁盘、奶盘、白脱盘等。

在餐具摆放中,各个西方国家摆放西餐餐具遵循的共同规则是:“垫盘居中,左叉右刀,刀尖向上,刀口向内”。具体的规则有:“盘前横匙,主食靠左,餐具靠右”,其余用具酌情摆放;酒杯的数量与酒的种类相等,摆法是从左到右,依次摆烈性酒杯,葡萄酒杯,香槟酒杯,啤酒杯;西餐中餐巾放在盘子里,如果在宾客尚未落坐前需要往盘子里放某些物品,餐巾就放在盘子旁边。

西餐用餐餐具摆放为八字形,如果在用餐中途暂时休息片刻,可将刀叉分话盘中,刀头与叉尖相对成”一”字形或”八”字形,刀叉朝向自己,表示还是继续吃。用餐结束的摆置方式有两种:用餐结束后中,可将叉子的下面向上,刀子的刀刃侧向内与叉子并拢,平行放置于餐盘上。在宴会中,每吃一道菜用一副刀叉,对摆在面前的刀叉,是从外侧依次向内取用,因为刀叉摆放的顺序正是每道菜上桌的顺序。刀叉用完了,上菜也结束了。刀与叉除了将料理切开送入口中之外,还有另一项非常重要的功用:刀叉的摆置方式传达出“用餐中”或是“结束用餐”之讯息,而服务生是利用这种方式判断客人的用餐情形,刀叉柄朝向自己并列放在盘子里,则表示这一道菜已经用好,服务员就会把盘子撤去。

参考文献:

[1]蔡德贵、田辰山.三极世界文化差异(上)――筷子、手指和刀叉的视角[J],东方论坛,2007(02)

[2]卞浩宇.论中西饮食文化的差异【J】。南京林业大学学报(人文社会科学版),2004

[3]胡文仲.跨文化交际学概论【M】背景:外语教学与研究社,1999

[4]李明英.社会习俗与饮食文化【J】。锦州师范学院学报,1997,

[5]多晓萍.从饮食角度浅谈中西文化【J】。兰州工业高等专科学校学报,2005

[6]林美泳,吴晓芳,吴家铭.浅谈中西方饮食文化差异[J],2009(16)

[7]林丽端.中西方饮食文化之比较[J],2009(18).

[8]杜莉, 孙俊秀. 西方餐饮文化,中国轻工业出版社

中西服装文化对比研究报告论文

Abstract: Dress culture is a cultural phenomenon unique to human beings. As it has different aesthetic ideas, different dressing concepts and different dress etiquette in China and west, it forms Chinese and western dress culture of the different connotation and characteristics. This thesis is divided into four major sections. The first part describes the different features of Chinese and western dress and why people wear clothing. The second part describes cultural differences between Chinese and western clothing. The third part gives an analysis of Chinese and western dress culture. The last part describes Chinese and western dress aesthetic culture and dress concept. Based on the analysis, the thesis finally draws a conclusion. Chinese and western dress culture each has rich connotation and distinct characteristics, which are precious cultural legacy which is left by human ancestors and are the world culture heritage. At the same time, we treasure our own civilization of five thousand years instead of belittling ourselves. It is significant to promote and develop our unique costume culture. We are confident and make contributions to realizing the rejuvenation of our Chinese nation and enriching the clothing culture of the whole world. Key words: Chinese and western clothing; culture;differences;aesthetic culture and clothing concepts 摘要摘要摘要摘要::::服饰文化是人类特有的文化现象。由于中西方各民族的审美观念、着装理念和服饰礼仪的不同,从而形成了不同内涵、不同特色的中西方服饰文化。本文共分为四部分。第一部分主要介绍了中西服饰的不同特征以及为什么人要穿衣服,第二部分写中西方服饰的差异,第三部分写导致中西方服饰文化差异的原因,第四部分则写中西方服饰审美文化和着装理念。通过以上简单的论述,最后得出结论,中西方服饰文化各具有丰富的内涵和鲜明的特色,她们都是人类祖先留下来的宝贵文化遗产 ,是世界文化的瑰宝。与此同时,我们应该珍惜自己五千年的文明而不是贬低自己的文明。促进和发展我们独特的民族服饰文化具有重要的意义。为了实现我们中华民族的文化复兴和丰富整个世界的文化,让我们自信起来吧! 关键词关键词关键词关键词::::中西服饰;文化;差异性;审美文化与着装理念Introduction Costume culture, carried by costume, is a respect of our physical and spiritual life and a mixture of our psychological activities like consciousness, emotion, idea and ideal. The rapid development of advanced technology makes multiculturalism stand out and also makes conflicts between China and the West increase. In that case, it becomes more and more important to recognize the similarities and differences of costume culture between China and the West. Nowadays, the whole world is, to some extent, dominated by the western costume culture, which has wound its way into the daily life of the whole world, together with technology, life style and values from the West. Quite popular in China, it’s nominally called “internationalization” or “globalization”. In recent years, the costume industry of China has developed swiftly. The “international” costume, featured by the western costume culture, has become a pretty important part of our daily life. However, as our economy takes off, international status rises and living standard improves, a wave of national costume culture resurgence is rising. Moreover, people from the West pay more and more attention to the giant dragon in the East——China. Western costume designers constantly introduce Chinese costume cultural elements to their latest designs. Those phenomena arouse a series of thoughts: what distinguishes Chinese costume culture from the western one? Are there any similarities between them? What kind of costume culture will we Chinese hold as the mainstream in the future, the so-called “international” western one, the Chinese one or the fusion of the two? To obtain the answers to these questions, we are supposed to study and contrast carefully the characteristics and developing processes of them, and then draw some regularity. To contrast the costume culture between China and the West, it is necessary for us to master a good knowledge of the Chinese and western costume cultural 1 Chinese and western dress The different features of Chinese and western dress China is known as “Xia” as it’s a land of propriety, and it’s also known as “Hua” with the beauty of its costume. (①《左传》p83) Our national costume is Hanfu. It originated in the Yanhuang era, formed in the Spring and Autumn Period and officially took form in Han Dynasty. That’s the reason why it’s called “Hanfu”. Since then, in spite of historical evolutions of all ages, their basic characteristics have never changed. Hanfu, on the whole, can be divided into four developing stages: Zhou Han Hanfu, Wei Jin Hanfu, Sui Tang Hanfu and Song Ming Hanfu. Zhou Han Hanfu was featured by dignity and simplicity, while Wei Jin Hanfu by chic and elegance, Sui Tang Hanfu by dignified, graceful, elegant and poised style. Hanfu in Song and Ming Dynasties epitomizes the characteristics of the past-simple, dignified, elegant, etc. In Qing Dynasty, Hanfu was forbidden by the government and disappeared from the land of China. The main features of Chinese clothing are focusing on the right collar’s overlap, the band deducted hidden, big sleeves, no buttons and using string binding, giving the impression of free and easy flowing. These characteristics are obviously different from those of other ethnic costumes. Hanfu is divided into uniform and common clothing. With strict standards, uniform is dressed on formal occasions while the common clothing, without long sleeves, is very convenient to people’s daily life. However, the western clothing is different form the Chinese clothing. The West belongs to Marine civilization, it emphasizes the subjective and objective separation and that we should rationally treat clothing, advocate releasing personality, stress dress effect and be good at showing beautiful the posture of the body. Besides, we use various clipping, color collocation means to perfect bodily curve and give a person with visual comfort in the modeling. A suit, also known as a business suit, comprises a collection of matching clothing consisting of: a coat﹙commonly known as a jacket﹚,a waistcoat﹙optional﹚﹙USA vest﹚for men, a pair of trousers﹙USA pants﹚, or for women, a shirt or trousers. A suit is generally accompanied by torment, a shirt and tie or for women, a blouse. Why people wear clothingChinese people are concerned more about its social function of helping to rule a country well than that of keeping warm or decorating. It has a lot to do with ruling a country to regulate the dressing way of the common people. Nevertheless, the westerners pay more attention to its wealth value and function. Therefore, people put on clothing for functional and social reasons. The functional reason The first use of clothing is to resist the cold and cover the body. Functions of clothing include providing the human body protection against extremes of climate (extreme heat, icy winters, and drenching storms) and protection against insects, noxious, chemicals, and contact with abrasive substances. In sum, clothing protects human beings against anything that might injure the naked, unprotected human body. The social reason Clothing also delivers social messages to other humans. Social messages sent by clothing, accessories, and decorations can involve social status, occupation, ethnic and religious belief, marital status, cultural degree and sexual availability, etc. For example, only Roman citizens can wear “Toga” in Rome while dragon robe can only be dressed by the emperor in China.

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Western novels in comparison First, Western novels in the history of the development of Western novels are based on myths and legends of its origin. In ancient times, science developed, out of fear of nature, the working people out of the imagination is the key to many of the world "God", describing the personification of God is a myth; who will describe the deified, that is legend. China opened the world's Pan story, the story of San Juan Five Emperors, the West Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Norse mythology, and so on are all typical works. East and West, the original novel, is closely linked with the history, as historical records complement the event. China Pre-Qin prose in the fable, the Han dynasty in the history books, biographies, the Wei and Jin Zhi, Zhi-person novel; the West of ancient Babylon, "the United States and Ji Jia disabilities epic", in ancient Greece, "Homer's epic," "Aesop's Fables "And so on, fall into this category, fiction, novels such novels have been about the characteristics of fiction, it is still not the literary creation, directly from the private collection record, so this type of fiction plot is relatively simple, writing rough comparison. Ban Gu said, "On the Street Lane words, hearsay are made of" is a novel kind of accurate assessment of the image. China's Tang Dynasty, the novel is only from history and literature become a creativity. Tang Dynasty culture has developed, the author's ideas are more open, the legend came into being at this time, Li Zhaowei "Liu Yi Chuan", Po Chu's "Everlasting Regret," Wolf's "Everlasting Regret Chuan" And so on, are made in accordance with the creation of the legend. For the fictional story of the Tang Dynasty more emphasis on imagination and literary talent, not just the history of the nature of things, but as the history of Zhi Zhi who is also the novel did not stop. The Legend of the Song Dynasty to the novel on a gradual decline, which followed the rise of this so that after processing will become a scholar so many novel and Romance novels such as "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", "Outlaws of the Marsh", "Journey to the West." The author of such novels is the use of private creative and re-created to describe the circumstances of the touching scenes of brilliant and vivid active in shaping the character known, there are obvious story-telling style of language. Here by the redevelopment, it will become an independent literary creation rather than things to come together with the civil process, the representative of this type is the "Golden Lotus", it was an open and ordinary life on the road, the reality is that literature has come a long way The development of the latter's "A Dream of Red Mansions" in ancient China Geng Shiba realism to the novels of the summit. "54" after the novelist began to learn from China's western fiction writing practices, and gradually out a new path. Western novels, is the "Renaissance" after the rapid development of mature. The development of the Middle Ages novel near-stagnation in the West, 14, the end of the century "Renaissance" to overthrow the literature of the Church of control, 15, appeared in the western end of the century to promote freedom of thought and the liberation of personality in order to describe the reality of life and portray characters from all walks of life for the content of the Humanist novels, is to tie in with this type of novel anti-feudal Europe at the time of arising at the same time it also set the novel in the West to human describing the tone of the main things. Jiaqiu Italy's "Decameron", Spain's Cervantes "Don Quixote" is the kind of representative works of fiction. The resulting novel is a classical, elegant favor of its national language to standardize the writing of this novel in 17th century France's most well-developed. As a note on behalf of Corneille's "Cid" neoclassical story of the rise of Western novels have been a language substantially improved. The beginning of the 18th century to promote popular science knowledge, enlightenment of the public consciousness for the purpose of the Enlightenment novels, of which there are relatively well-known German Goethe's "Faust", the United Kingdom Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Swift "Gulliver's Travels" and so on, this type of novel to the emergence of the bourgeois revolution at the time to mold public opinion. In the 19th century, romantic fiction, realistic novels and critical realism novel turn to occupy the leading position in the field of fiction. Romantic novels, such as France Victor Hugo's "Notre Dame de Paris", Goethe's "juvenile Witt of trouble" and so on, imaginative, unusual ideas, language and imaginative, strong feelings. Efforts to reflect the reality of the novel is the essence of life, and depict typical life of a typical phenomenon in the United Kingdom Dickens, France and Germany are of such novels as a representative of the writer. Critical realism novels exposed the efforts of the decadent feudal system and capitalist society, the dark, in-depth criticism of the reality of evil, France Balzac and Maupassant, the United Kingdom of Charlotte, Bronte,. Russia's Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, the United States of a large number of writers such as Mark Twain's works belong to this category. Value today, the three novels in the West is still the most important of the three types of literary fiction. East-West novel on the history of the development of more or less the case. Second, the characteristics of the novel in the West In addition to the basic characteristics of the novel, the story of the West also have their own characteristics are as follows: 1, the traditional Chinese novel attention to the characters, language and the details of the description, in contradiction to the conflict to display the images, but the character of a single, small changes in the absence of the main flu. Western novels are more people pay attention to the psychological description, stressed that mining figure in the subconscious mind, good at writing full, the changes in the strong sense of the main characters. Again, "coach Lin Feng Snow Mountain Temple" in the figure is only through dialogue and action leads to contradictions and conflicts, but Anna Karenina Wogui before a series of conflicts only with his description of the psychological will be able to express their clear; for poetry in Lin In the performance of her literary talent, and Paul with his inner monologue of the ideal; Zhang Zhong-Yong has only the character, but Jane Eyre's character is the brave, strong, warm, kind-hearted, and so many of the character and rubbing and Cheng's. In short, people in the area described in the West has its own unique features. 2, China compared with Western fiction novel plot twists and turns more and more complete story. Plot twists and turns, the story is complete fiction China's unique traditional arts. The Wei and Jin Zhi Zhi people on the novel twists and turns with vivid characteristics. Tang legend in the layout of many of the famous, magnificent anomaly, rigorous and clever, dramatic plot development. The contents of the Ming and Qing Dynasties novels scattered irregular, undulating waves, Cuoluoyouzhi, careful structure, an integral whole. "A Dream of Red Mansions", everywhere She Fu, Hui turning point, the story of Jia's best writing. Western plot in respect of the outstanding works, although there are many, but it can not be compared with the Chinese novel. 3, concise and lively Chinese language novel, rich in content and rich Western novels. Chinese folk artists absorbed the novel language, at the same time inherited the fine traditions of ancient prose, often a few words will be able to outline the incident or the people. Western novels in the author includes a broad range of knowledge, involve the community in many ways, so rich in content and rich people can gain knowledge in many areas. Engels said he was in Balzac's novel about 19th century France's domestic situation than he received any reports are more. Western novels have different characteristics, and also in the West different aesthetic concepts to a certain extent related. 4, Western novels have been the rule of the feudal culture of oppression destroyed. Chinese feudal culture makes the development of the novel is extremely difficult, Ming and Qing Dynasties more people to write stories for shame, so many great writers living, creating the conditions are not covered, many of the great works of authors who do not know. Western novels in the feudal culture makes almost the whole of the Middle Ages in the development of extremely slow, and many talented writers were forced to church services, wrote some of the religious nature of the article dry hole. Third, Western novels in the future prospects for the development of End of the Qing Dynasty, China and the West have begun to understand the other side of the system, the advantages of the novel in the West have been constantly learn from each other. Of course, due to historical reasons, the Chinese side of the draw a little more. To this day, the novelist in the West efforts are still two researchers in the novel's artistic charm, although the different languages of each other's appreciation of the arts to a certain extent, but the United States are interlinked. We have every reason to believe that in the near future, the novel art in the West will ultimately learn from each other and integrate, develop and reach new artistic heights. References: "Foreign Literature" Shanghai Translation Publishing House Zhou Xu Liang "Contemporary Literature election," Zhang Zhong, such as Beijing University Publishing House "Chinese literature history of the development of" Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House Liu Jie "Literary History of Europe" People's Literature Publishing House Yangzhou Han Wu Da-yuan Zhao Rui radish "Three high school language textbook used by the five dates of the" People's Education Press仅供参考,请自借鉴。希望对您有帮助。

隐喻的中西方文化差异Abstract: Metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a way of thinking, which is one of the basic methods for human survival and cognition. It is rooted in language, thought and culture. Through the analysis and comparison of the use and concept of metaphor in different countries, we find that its universality and commonality of the metaphor as a basic human cognitive activities. However, metaphor in different languages reflects a different way of thinking and behavior and different cultural patterns. Owing to the different two modes of thinking and culture, there are some differences in understanding and formation that can not be ignored. Therefore, this paper will discuss the questions : metaphor, cross-cultural differences, translation. 1. Preamble Metaphor is a common phenomenon, a large number of people use metaphor to express his feelings and ideas. British scientists rhetoric Richards (IARichards) once said, "We have day-to-day in almost every conversation in three sentences may be a metaphor." According to statistics, life around the use of 4,700,000 new metaphor, 2,140,000 stereotypes of metaphor. Research in recent years, there is a great metaphor. This article introduced in the definition of metaphor on the basis of summing up the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western metaphor, and that its culture, precisely because of the prevalence of metaphor, how to translate metaphor has become a very important issue in the latter part of the article is aimed at The translation of metaphor put forward a translation of the three strategies. This paper studies aimed at trying to comparative analysis of English and Chinese in a large number of day-to-day language of metaphor to express, find out the differences and similarities, in order to be able to accurately translate the article in good metaphor to explore a little. This article is about the metaphor from the point of view to explore the differences in the way Thinking allows us to a deeper understanding of language, culture, the relationship between thinking and can more clearly understand the different ethnic language, culture, way of thinking, and so on On the nature of translation. 2. Metaphors in Chinese and Western studies In 1980, Lakoff & Johnson (George Lakoff & Mark Johnson) made a "living metaphor" (Metaphors We Live By) of the book, a modern metaphor to open a new chapter in the school. Domestic academia on the "metaphor" This is also a review of the system, such as Lin Wu's book "Study abroad metaphor Looking at the" beam-setting "metaphor research," Li of China and India "The main subjects Metaphor" and so on. However, the Chinese metaphor for the academic study of rare. "Chinese scholars on the study of metaphor, I am afraid the real contribution should be through the metaphor of the Chinese characteristics of research and study, through the metaphor of the Chinese and other languages in the comparative study of metaphor, metaphor for the establishment of a more general theory of the strong, and even unique The basis. "Lin Wu in the book" metaphor of the basic research the status quo, and the focus of the trend "in the main text, put forward a model of cultural metaphors with the relationship:" The language of metaphor is the emergence of expression into the system, which not only reflects the psychological Structure, but also reflect the different cultural models also play a role. " metaphor in the relationship between Chinese and Western cultures relationship Correspond to (corresponding) refers to the relationship between the two languages, English and Chinese in the meaning and metaphor in the use of the same meaning in the culture and image, and so on and-one mapping. This is because the survival of mankind itself, as well as all the external conditions, including the geographical environment, climate change, and the whole of human society and cultural background are certain there is a common, which formed a common humanity of their own and the outside world on many issues. In the "angry" mood, the English are angry that physiological responses, such as: grind one's teeth. (Teeth), bare one's teeth. (Ziyaliezui) an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth), reflecting the Chinese culture on the basis of common experience. non-correspondence English-Chinese metaphor, after all, rooted in two different languages on the soil, resulting in very different cultural backgrounds, fully corresponds to the few metaphors, the vast majority do not have common cultural identity in order to form the corresponding non-(non-corresponding ) Relations. Non-relationship metaphor can be roughly divided into three categories: Vehicle counterpart, Yu Yi does not correspond to English and Chinese in some cases there is the same as a metaphor, but in their own language and culture in the meaning of the metaphor means is different, even different. Peacock in the Chinese culture is auspicious, a symbol of beauty, especially the Dai people to express jumped Pavaner desire to better their own. If the Chinese people will be likened to a peacock, it means that beautiful light. However, in English, peacock (Peacock) is a symbol of pride, often interpreted as arrogance, love to show off. For example, They were eager to take the young peacock down a peg. (They want to pressure a pressure that the arrogant young guy's momentum). counterpart Yu Yi, the vehicle does not correspond to English-Chinese two nations due to their differences, from different angles to look at things the same, it will be a different analogy. As a result both English and Chinese language there is a different vehicle, but Yu was referring to was basically the same as the meaning of the case, that is the same kind of non-correspondence. Such as: a person described as the hearts of anxious, restless, Chinese is "ants on the hot pan" and English is "a cat on the bricks". There are similar: To kick down the ladder. Guohechaiqiao. Yu Yu Yi and do not correspond to Some of the metaphors Yu-Yu has a meaning and it refers to the language and culture are closely related, in another culture often can not find corresponding Yu and Yu Yi, which resulted in a culture known as the default Phenomenon. For example: in English "my rib" I am referring to Yu's wife, it comes from the "Bible" story, that is, Adam (Adam)'s wife Eve (Eve) God is with a piece of Adam's rib made. The Chinese did not, "the Bible" cultural background, and there was no analogy with rib habit, so the formation of a corresponding gap. Similarly, "ugly duckling" (Ugly Duckling) refers to the metaphor will get ahead of Little, "early bird" refers to the diligent Yu, in the words into Chinese language, culture, as a result of the default, can not find a corresponding relationship between metaphor . Chinese and Western cultures in the common metaphor Metaphor and culture to a large extent, human beings have a common understanding, rooted in the people's own day-to-day experience. In this connection, often between different ethnic groups are the same. Both English and Chinese language in a lot of abstract thinking that the metaphorical expression is the same. For example: the human child in the period to form a position on the concept of input in that direction in the form of many of them easily understood, including the position expressed by metaphor, which has become a fixed pattern of thinking. For example: The term direction (up, down) to describe people's social status, physical, emotional, and other abstract concepts to the case when the good is up; Sad is down. We Chinese are also not difficult to find a similar sentence: "Gas Prices "," enhance the social status "and" vision "and" depressed. " Since the objective laws of nature with the relative unity of different cultures to understand the nature of the course is similar to the cognitive experience. in the metaphor of the difference between Chinese and Western cultures As the English-Chinese geographical and cultural differences, living in two different cultures in practice there are a lot of differences, and different life experiences and let people understand the objective world, a different language carries different nationalities Cultural characteristics and cultural information. Understanding of metaphor is not out of socio-cultural backgrounds. For example, social and cultural impact of the color words is deep-rooted, some color words in different cultures in an entirely different meaning, has a distinctive feature of our national culture. Such as: English, said in green "inexperienced" and "shallow knowledge", such as: "a green hand", "I was very green when I started working there." The Chinese like to express the meaning of the word is "yellow" Such as: "Huangmaoyatou" and "flower girl". Cultural background knowledge is the metaphor to create a rich source of thinking, as the Eastern and Western cultures are different, metaphors in English and Chinese applications there are also significant differences. The metaphor of the cross-cultural differences between Chinese and Western influence Language is a cultural change in the development of the complex, subject to political, economic, historical, environmental and other factors. Chinese and Western styles are different, but in many ways to infiltrate interaction and integration, language differences and cultural metaphor for the inevitable impact is complex and diverse. metaphorical expression of cultural conflict Different nationalities in the world to observe a different perspective and ideas, different cultures there are a lot of conflict or inconsistency metaphor. If the animal metaphors, in English Long (dragon) is a kind of evil, will belch out smoke monster. "Bible", the dragon is the devil, is a symbol of evil and terror, there is a terrible vicious meaning. The Chinese dragon is in power, the auspicious symbol of Chinese traditional culture, the Chinese have "Wangzichenglong", "descendants of the Dragon." The same analogy in different cultures, different meaning, of two cultures "Dragon" to give a different connotation. differences in living conditions caused by differences in metaphor In English is a lot of metaphor and marine-related, such as: all at sea (at a loss what to do); drink like a fish (drinking cow); fish in the air (Shuizhonglaoyue); give up the ship (give up). In Chinese, there are a lot of the horse or cattle pose a metaphor, such as: "a willing ox" (a willing horse) Gan means to serve the community; "old ox" (a working horse) refers to the hard work; "bragging "(Talk horse), and so on. This is due to different geographical location and natural environment caused by different cultural metaphor. Britain is an island, ultimately, dependent on the sea, and China is a large agricultural country, farming culture deeply feudal society. different religious and cultural differences arising from the metaphor Religious culture of human culture is an important part of it by referring to the nation's religious beliefs, such as the formation of the sense of culture, "the Bible" in the story, with its language and meaning has become a feature of daily life in the West in terms of . For example, power of the keys (the keys to the kingdom of heaven; the rights of the Pope), in the right church, but in the wrong pew (in general is right, but not the details), and so on. Chinese culture and Buddhism, Taoism and more affected by the impact of Confucianism, the Chinese, there are a lot of related argot. "Jiehuaxianfo"; "临时抱佛脚"; "做一天和尚撞一天钟" and so on. It is due to the diversity of culture, resulting in the differences between English and Chinese metaphor. This difference to the cross-cultural communication has brought the impact. As a foreign language students, do not understand the difference between metaphor and language will make mistakes, sometimes mistakenly made good as pleasant, caused by either one or both of the conversation unpleasant; also sometimes mocked as a praise. When a native language other operators do not understand the language contained in the cultural differences, it is often difficult for such language to accurately convey the meaning of the understanding, difficulty to the cross-cultural exchange. 3. Metaphor of the three methods of translation The translation of metaphor not only accurately and effectively convey the original language, but also loyal, accessible, complete reproduction of the original language and cultural connotation and significance. But in the West because of cultural differences and different, so the translation of metaphor in English on the need to consider not only its literal sense, and so on, but also in the West should pay attention to their cultural differences. American Eugene Nida said: "Translation is the exchange between the two cultures. The real success of the translation, even more familiar with the two cultures is more important to master two languages. Because only in terms of its role in the culture In the background will only be meaningful. "Therefore, the translation of metaphor to combining Chinese and Western cultures, and cultural backgrounds to leave the translation, can not be achieved between the two languages of the real exchange. Literal Translation The so-called "literal" is asked in the language when conditions permit, in the translation to maintain the original content, but also to maintain the original form, in particular, to maintain the original metaphor, the image of the nation, and other local color. In the literal translation method to maintain the original expression of the culture and at the same time, target enriched the vocabulary and expression, such as: "a Pandora's box" (Pandora's Box); "chain reaction" (chain reaction). In the original text and asked the information contained in the same culture, we should adopt the literal translation method. (1) You are my sunshine, my only sunshine. : You are my sun, my only sunshine. In Chinese and English, the sun is warm, beautiful, in both languages, they disseminate information on culture are the same. As a rule, and asked in the original text in the form of grammatical structure, similar to the style or color on basically the same, the law should adopt the literal translation. (1) He is another Shylock. : He is also a Shylock. (Note: Shakespeare's Shylock is "The Merchant of Venice" in a very harsh mean business People. ) (2) To carry coals to Newcastle. : Coal to Newcastle. (Note: "Newcastle" is a British coal, coal is superfluous here.) 4. Conclusion Metaphor as a way to figures of speech or skills, a unique feature of grammar, which features make the sentence more flexible and constructive, but the United States. Is a metaphor to express more complex ideas and things, a powerful tool. Wherever and whenever people in their daily lives are often used metaphor. As Mr. Lin Zhuang said: "The metaphor is no longer expanding his knowledge and understanding of a passive process. To help us in the form of new knowledge, the metaphor has played an active role so that we can better a better understanding of the objective world." In English and Chinese Metaphorical significance of the difference is due to cultural differences between East and West, that mode of thinking, moral values and sense of difference. However, different cultural impact of what is the concept of metaphor, it is still a need to examine and address the problem. At the same time, in the metaphor of the process of translation must pay special attention to cultural differences. The best translation is to be able to accurately reflect the true meaning of the author, as well as its cultural and stylistic characteristics of the translation, that is, the translation of metaphor to make as much as possible the original language and to achieve the target language culture, and so on.

中外服装品牌对比研究论文

寓意,形体可以兼得 ——关于在创作实践中如何吸收中外服装史的经验启示的论文从伏羲氏化蚕丝为穗帛,古埃及人利用亚麻织物制作围裙以及苏美尔人采用羊毛织物包缠在人体上,形成服装开始,似乎就暗示了中西方服装的发展历程,风貌形态将会有着千差万别的不同。 中西服装文化之间的内涵有很大的差别,中国服装文化是一种单源性的文化,在其形成过程中,与中国的巫觋和礼乐文化有密切的联系,注重形的内涵,具有浓厚的社会政治伦理倾向。在其发展进程中,因袭、守旧,继承性与连续性远大于变异性与创新性。西方服装文化是一种多源性的文化,在其形成过程中,将服装视作一门特殊的人体艺术,注重形式,认为形式即内容。在其发展过程中,时代特征明显,风格变化昭然。变异与创新性远大于继承与连续性。 以中国为代表的东方服装文化深受传统东方文化的影响。强调线形和纹饰的抽象寓意表达,透露出一种含蓄美。林语堂先生曾有深切的领悟,他说:“中装与西装在哲学上的不同之点就是,后者已在显出人体的线形,而前者在意遮隐之。”这使得中装与西装的直观静态之美产生了根本上的差别。追本溯源,西洋服装从诞生之日起就冲满了激进的思想与吸收外来文化的大度,所以说西方服装文化是一种多源性的文化。它的文化源于古希腊,古罗马文化,受当时的绘画,雕塑等造型艺术的影响至深,其审美视觉历来重视立体的造型。在西方的服装史上,13世纪初期就已确立了立体三维的裁剪方法。而三维裁剪的发明和运用成为了东西方服装的分水岭,从此,西方服装变得立体,外形变得富于变化,同时尽可能得让造型体现体形美。而以中国为代表的东方文化以含蓄为美,以朦胧隐约,藏而不露给人委婉含蓄的审美感受,通过款式,布局,色彩,线条给人整体的和谐之美,大量采用刺绣,飘带,图案和其他的装饰手法,表达丰富的寓意与想象。可以说中国人对服饰重装饰之美,讲究与环境和谐;西方人对服装造型之美,讲究与环境对比。东方服饰重“意”,西方服饰重“形”;东方表达含蓄,西方表达鲜明。东西方服饰完全是两种不同文化的反映,因而服饰文化特色的风格形成与民族风俗,历史文化的渊源有着紧密地联系。可见服装是一种文化,中西服装文化由于发生的地理环境、气候条件不同,在发展的过程中历史积淀的内容不同,中西服装文化之间的内涵有着很大的差别。 但在服装发展历史的漫漫长河中,我们时不时地会看到东西方服装风格的融合,而这种融合往往会绽放出一种夺目的光芒,乃至影响到整个社会。时至今日,东西方服装风格融合的实例仍屡见不鲜。 “丝绸之路”的开辟使得来自遥远东方中国的精美丝绸传入了古罗马,这让古罗马的贵族爱不释手,贵妇们更是不惜花费昂贵的价格来达到自己追求时尚的目的。欧洲中世纪的拜占庭式服装,继承和发扬了古希腊,古罗马的文明和艺术风格,同时糅合了东方精美华丽的刺绣图案,以丝绸为贵,为尚。中国的陶瓷和园林艺术深深影响了18世纪欧洲的艺术风格——洛可可。那玲珑剔透,华丽雕琢的瓷器和园林建筑迎合了法国宫廷的审美情趣,被吸收融会于法国的艺术乃至欧洲的艺术中。尤其是中国陶瓷上的精描绘画,镶金嵌银,极尽曲线绕转之美的装饰,直接影响了洛可可艺术风格。这种风格不仅体现服装上,还体现在了建筑,绘画等艺术门类上。 1910年,俄国芭蕾舞团在巴黎的公演引发轰动,其色彩瑰丽,外形新颖的芭蕾舞衣,为服装设计开创了新局面。从而欧洲形成了一股东方热潮,设计师纷纷将中国,日本,俄罗斯和印度的设计特色与古希腊,古罗马的古典披垂式风格熔于一炉,创造出了美不胜收的各式服装。 上世纪60年,时装设计大师伊夫.圣.洛朗(Yves Saint Laurant)发表了“中国风”系列。涉及灵感来自清代官府中的凉帽和马褂。70年代,东西方服饰文化进一步互相撞击,互相融合,高级时装一统天下的时代宣告结束,时装朝着更加民主化,大众化,多样化,国际化的方向发展。日本设计大师高田贤三,三宅一生运用东方传统服装的平面裁剪,设计出不强调合体的曲线的宽松肥大的服装。这种非构筑式设计,与西方的构筑式窄衣结构截然不同,但在当时反体制思潮和石油冲击的大背景下,为世人提供了一种新的选择,抓住了消费的新契机。他们的设计很快广为流传,两位来自东方日本的时装大师从此登上巴黎时装乃至世界时装的舞台。 而就在去年,身着2004/2005秋冬Yves Saint Laurent Rive Gauche高级成衣的模特伴随着中国电影《花样年华》的背景音乐缓缓走来。各色鲜艳的仿旗袍式立领垫肩缎质套装、用蝴蝶系着盘扣子旗袍套长裤、龙纹云纹中国图腾、用缇花、织锦、刺绣等各种布料及编织技巧,展现极度奢艳亮丽的中国风情。如今闻名于世的美国设计师Tom Ford运用奢侈的中国风为YSL画下重量级的句号。 东西方服饰文化与着不同的优势和魅力,同时也存在着不足与偏颇。例如巴洛克,洛可可时期强调人体体形的紧身胸衣给女性身体的正常机能带来了严重的危害。而宽袍大袖始终贯穿于3000多年的中国服装史,时常给人以呆板,停滞不前,少有变化,创新的感觉。十分巧合的是,19世纪末20世纪初,东西方服装都发生了革命性的变革。在变革中,两者又有着相反的发展倾向。东方服装由松变紧,宽袍大袖吸收了西方三维的立体裁剪,使服装变得贴体,轻便,改良旗袍正是中西合璧最经典的完美体现;而西方则摒弃了造作,扭曲性的人体美,把女性从损害健康的紧身胸衣中解放出来。但相同的都是为了适应新的生活,东西方都改变了繁琐的装饰和累赘的服装结构。 由此可见,中国古代表达寓意的宽袍大袖,西方强调人体之美的服装造型两者并无绝对的孰优孰劣的对比。事实证明,将东方精美华丽的刺绣赋予西方立体合身的服装上展现出了耀眼的光彩。当今,世界各地的服装元素互相融合,互相碰撞是历史发展的必然趋势。作为将会从事于中国服装设计行业的我们,不仅要把握开放的时代契机,紧跟国际时尚潮流,更要努力保护,发扬中国服装的传统特色。让东方服装的寓意和西方服装的形体可以兼得且形态更加丰富多变,让将来的国际时尚舞台绽放出绚丽灿烂的中国光芒!

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1论文的研究目的和意义服装对于文化的意义,和服和旗袍对于中日两国服装历史的意义,以及二者对于中日两国人民生活和文化意义2国内(外)研究现状文献综述性质的,总结目前国内学者对于服装与文化关系研究的文献内容3主要研究内容和创新点此处略4研究进度和安排某月某日——某月某日做什么(开题、初稿、二稿、定稿、答辩)5参考文献此处略这些都有了就行了,1000——3000字左右 合适记得采纳哈

中国:大而不强。近日,今年三季度部分纺织服装公司季报公布,数据显示多数公司利好。伴随着这一喜讯,有关服装行业将迎来行业“拐点”,即将走出行业低谷的说法开始传播。事实是否如此?种种因素决定了“拐点说”显得言之过早。截至10月31日,有82家纺织服装公司公布三季报,其中,有68家公司实现盈利,另有14家公司报亏。也就是说82家纺织服装公司有逾8成公司报喜。进而有人得出了行业“拐点”来临。对此,其给出的理由是棉价“过山车”对纺织企业的影响正逐渐消除,具有一定规模与实力的纺织服装类上市公司最先恢复过来。对此有业内人士表示了异议,原材料价格只是影响服装业的部分原因,而目前困扰服装业发展的问题是多方面的。河北省纺织与服装协会会长王超在接受记者采访时表示,部分企业数字指标好转,只能表示某个服装品牌或者说是行业局部,得到了好转,而影响服装业整体发展的根本问题,比如产能过剩问题、发展方式问题、同质化问题、劳动力成本增高等问题仍然存在,服装业发展仍然困难。王超以河北省容城县服装业为例,指出了当前国内服装业面临的现状。据介绍,河北省作为服装大省,“大而不强”的特点突出,而这恰恰是中国服装业的特征。经过多年发展,目前在河北省部分县市形成了服装产业集群,容城县就是其中一个。截至去年年底,容城县拥有服装企业830家,年生产服装4亿多件(套),经过贴牌的产品主要外销往欧洲市场。包括皮尔卡丹、哥伦比亚户外等知名服装品牌都在容城拥有代工厂。而目前劳动力工资增长,成为容城县服装业发展的枷锁,且越来越紧。2010年工人工资是1000多元,2011年上半年涨到1500元,2012年年初突破了2000元,否则招不到工人只能停产。在面对招工难的同时,容城县部分服装企业去年来还不得不面对订单减少而导致的开工不足问题。王超说,容城县的服装业可以说是目前国内服装业的缩影。服装行业保持可持续性发展,只有转变发展方式,推进产业结构优化升级。而转变发展方式、结构升级并不是短时间就能做到并看到效果的。国外:二战后至今美国的纺织服装业,无论是其就业人数占总制造业人数的比重,还是其产值占美国GDP的比重都呈逐渐下降的趋势,反映了美国纺织服装业的逐渐衰落;但与此同时,由于其人力资本、基础设施、技术水平、金融市场方面占据较大优势,因此其综合竞争力仍高于中国、印度等国。

中西方茶文化对比研究论文

问题确实不小,我建议你找本茶文化方面的书来看看,关于传播、差异上面应该都有涉及!!!

浅析中国茶文化和法国咖啡文化之比较 [论文关键词]中国茶文化法国咖啡文化比较分析 [论文摘要]中国是茶文化的发源地,茶在... 热点论文 中日文化差异对商务谈判的影响及 论中国的昆虫文化 浅谈英汉习语中的文化差异 在当前中国网络文化...

中英两国茶文化差异的比较发布时间 2011-07-05 浏览 11344 次品;琴棋书画诗酒茶——茶是我国传统文化的载体。“英国变成一个喝茶的国家,至少在民族营养、社会伦理、经济政治等方面,对英国现代文明的进程有过有益的影响。”[3]英国人用本民族的牛奶和美洲的糖将苦涩的茶变成了甜饮料,使其富含蛋白质、脂肪、碳水化合物、维生素,于是,茶就成了香浓味醇、营养丰富的生活必需品,成了日常食品干面包、奶酪、咸肉的佐餐饮料,特别是茶进入平民百姓家庭后,饮茶成为习惯化、仪式化的生活内容。下午茶不仅仅是温馨、宁静、和谐、休闲的家庭生活象征,为女性参与社交生活提供了场所——家庭茶室和社会茶园,在陶冶性情、维护道德、塑造温情脉脉的家庭关系和社会伦理上,都功不可没。而国内对茶叶巨大的消费量刺激了英国的对外贸易和殖民扩张,特别是英国为了改变茶叶输入,白银外流的窘境,将鸦片输入中国后,英国和东印度公司赚取了滚滚财富,支持了大英帝国庞大的东方殖民地,为早期工业文明提供了资本积累,进而为英国驱动的世界贸易体系奠定了基础。五、结语我们正处在一个多元文化或后现代主义时代。科学技术的快速发展.尤其传播媒体的高度现代化已经使我们居住的世界产生急剧的变化。如果不具备一定的特殊跨文化能力,那么我们很可能会在多元文化中丢失自我和认为自己的文化优于其他文化的狭隘和偏见

中西方饮食文化对比研究中文论文

按这个题目到百度里搜索一下就有了,OnDifferencesBetweenChineseandWesternDietaryCultures

中西饮食文化差异论文

在社会的各个领域,大家总免不了要接触或使用论文吧,借助论文可以达到探讨问题进行学术研究的目的。怎么写论文才能避免踩雷呢?以下是我收集整理的中西饮食文化差异论文,仅供参考,希望能够帮助到大家。

摘要:

本文通过阐述中西餐饮文化差异,分析中西餐饮文化在在哲学体系、价值观念、思维方式等方面的差异,从而促进中西方文化的融合,让更多的人通过饮食了解饮食背后的文化。

关键词:

中西文化;饮食文化;差异比较

提到饮食文化,人们总是会不约而同地首先想到“吃”,不错,饮食的确是人类生存和发展的第一需要,是社会生活的基本形式之一。然而加上了“文化”二字以后,饮食就不仅仅是“吃”这么简单了,它包括饮食文化的整体,是人类在饮食方面的创造行为及其成果,凡涉及人类饮食方面的思想、意识、观念、哲学、宗教、艺术等都在饮食文化的范围之内。

一、中西餐饮文化差异

中西方饮食文化最显而易见的不同就是使用的饮食器具。西方人以刀叉为食器,并且规定显明,不同规格的刀叉所使用的方式及场合不同,而且是不可以混用的。

中国人的餐桌上却不如西方人那么复杂,虽然是简简单单的一双筷子,但它在饮食文化中担任着十分重要的角色:筷子可以是我们的烹饪的工具,也是每家每户的搅拌器,打个鸡蛋,冲个饮料,无疑都需要筷子的帮忙。与西方如此严谨的规范相比,中国的筷子的确随意得多。

受科学导向的影响,西方烹饪的全过程必须严格按照科学规范行事,每道菜肴每次烹饪的过程、方法几乎完全一致,并且其所用的调料会精确到克,烹饪时间会精确到秒。

西方人对食物的选材极具规范,他们多以荤食为主,烹饪时往往以一整块肉或是一整只的禽类为主要食物,并且不吃内脏,认为内脏是弃料;对于蔬菜的选择上也比较单一,而且在饮食中以蔬菜为装点辅助之用,所以在西方人的饮食中蔬菜多为装饰工具。

相较于西方人而言,中国人在食物的选择与烹饪方式上就要随意得多。在中国厨师的手上也能变成一道味美的佳肴,这样的菜例比比皆是,如爆炒猪腰、糟猪肚、韭菜炒猪肝,等等。说到烹饪方式,更是层出不穷。不同于西方人的“精确到克”、“精确到秒”,中国人历来都是“随心所欲”,强调凭经验对结果进行把握。中国人喜素食,蔬菜的种类远多过于西方,这样,食材的相互搭配就变化多端,就以炒猪肝为例,可以是大葱炒猪肝,也可以是青椒炒猪肝,更可以是韭菜炒猪肝,每一道菜都各有风味。

西方人的饮食文化中注重食物的营养价值,因此,他们提倡吃生食,他们认为高温烹调会破坏了食物本身的营养,唯有生食才能最大限度地保存食物的天然属性和原汁原味,那么他们所追求的营养价值也可以被很好地保留。

中国饮食文化更重食物的味道,“美味”是中国饮食文化的第一要义,因此,中国人会借助一切技术手段、烹饪方式、调味方法使自己的食物变得鲜美无比,在中国,炒、煮、炖、烩、烧、烤、蒸、煎、炸、焖、熘等都是十分常见的熟食性烹调技术。

二、差异背后的文化根源

(一)哲学体系:形而上学与适度原则

西方哲学体系以形而上学为主要特点,也就是用孤立、静止、片面的观点看世界,认为一切事物都是孤立的,永远不变的;如果说有变化的话,那么只是数量的增减和场所的变更,这种增减或变更的原因不在事物内部而在于事物外部。反映到饮食文化就是所闻即所见,无论是菜单还是对食物的装点、摆盘,都是以一种最直接的方式呈现给人看,追求真实性,没有华丽的点缀,只体现食物的本源属性,这点与西方人的处事原则不谋而合,这样的哲学背景下就促成了西方人视“营养价值”为饮食的第一要义的观念,不在乎饮食的艺术性、创造性,目标性明确,即食物就是用来补充人对于营养需求的工具。

与西方人不同,中国传统哲学思想中最显著的特点之一是模糊、不可捉摸。它不像西方的形而上学那样追求事物的客观性、真实性,强调所闻即所见,而是凡是讲求分寸、讲求整体配合、讲求一个“度”。反映在饮食文化上的就是中国人将“美味”作为饮食的第一要义。在烹饪上,中国人讲究整体融合,没有西方人的精确,讲究的是凭经验将一道菜的各个部分相协调进而形成一道美味的佳肴。其中的经验又是模糊的,同一道菜,同一个师傅,每次做可能也会做出不同的味道,凭借经验对菜肴进行整体的把握,追求烹饪技术的随意性与艺术性,这便是中国人的传统哲学观念――模糊而完美。

(二)价值观:个人主义与集体主义

西方人推崇个人主义价值观念,个人目标高于对群体的忠诚。也就是说每一个只需要对自己负责即可,不需要服从其他任何一个集体,可以根据自己的喜好、需要选择自己喜欢的群体,但这样的选择并不是永久的,可以随时因为自己需求的改变而重新进行选择。如改变祈祷的教堂,更换雇主,等等。反映在饮食文化中最显著的就是西方人实行分餐制。

与之相对的,中国人崇尚集体主义价值观。在中国文化中,人们推崇谦虚知礼,不喜欢争强好胜,社会风气往往封杀过于突出的个人,正所谓“行高于众,人必非之”。在饮食文化中,这样的集体主义观念的确是受到了中国传统思想的影响,中国人的宴席多喜用圆桌,从形式上体现了团结、礼貌、共享的氛围。美味佳肴摆在桌子的中心,既是欣赏品尝的对象,又是交流感情的媒介。在这样的宴会气氛下,饮食已经不是宴会的主要目的,情感的交流才是宴会的中心。与西方人直截了当的交际方式不同,中国人的饮食目的依仗于一大群人的情感触碰、交流和共鸣。

(三)思维方式:个性与整体

西方人注重个性的发展,强调在集体中个性的最大限度发挥。他们追求差异性,凡事求异,认为每一个人都是独一无二的,强调天下万物都是独立的个体,彼此间没有联系,认为个性与个体的独立自主是人类社会发展的动力之一,因此对事物的看法与考虑往往从个性出发,西方人将独特的个性发展放置于一切行为活动的大前提之下。这无疑体现在了他们的饮食文化中,泾渭分明的摆盘和装点,虽同在一个盘子中,确是个性突出的各自为政,没有任何调和,肉即是肉,菜即是菜,土豆即是土豆,个性鲜明,味道明确,不会相互影响、相互混合。在烹饪上,同一个盘子中的不同食材也是被分开进行加工的,不会将它们放在一起烹煮,处处彰显西方人对于个体与个性的尊重和重视。中国人注重整体的发展,强调圆满、整合的思维方式和思想观念。不喜欢过于鲜明的个性张扬,反映在烹饪上更显见,无论是什么样的食材全部倒入锅中,再配以各种佐料进行烹调,即使原本个性鲜明,味道独特的食材在这样的磨合之下不会再显得如此锋芒。因此,中国菜尝起来滋味丰富,层次感强烈。再回过头看每一道菜,红不是那样鲜艳的红,绿也不是那样扎眼的绿,而是一种经过调和以后产生的和合之美。

(四)生活方式与生活节奏

在西方,流水线上的重复作业,实行计件工资制,生活节奏急促,人们有意无意地受到机械的两分法影响,将游戏与工作分得很清楚,即工作时工作,游戏时游戏,这样的生活方式十分单调、刻板,机械的工作生活模式逐步影响到了西方人对饮食的需求,导致饮食本身的单一性和简单性。

中国人则不然,中国人的随意性在这里体现无遗,不喜欢单纯的、机械的工作生活模式,推崇一种经验性的工作方式或者喜欢在工作中加入自己喜欢的元素或方法,就像中国的饮食烹饪一样,存在不稳定性,这样的不稳定性既指工作模式、工作方法的不稳定,又指工作结果的不稳定。就好像一道菜如果想要让它尝起来不那么咸,南方人可能会选择放糖冲淡咸味,如南方人的糖醋风味,就是用糖的甜与醋的酸中和酱油的咸味;而北方人则可能会把这道菜加水烹制食材,让食材变淡的同时改变了菜的性质,可能从一道炒菜变成了一道靓汤,因为生活经验、生活环境的不同而不同。这样并不稳定的经验性的改变方式,使原来单纯的一道菜变成了现在的三道菜而非两道菜,其中创造性与艺术性油然而生。

三、当前的餐饮文化发展与中西文化之间的融合

然而如今的中西方餐饮文化已不再像以前那样泾渭分明了,中餐中也融入了西式元素,西餐中处处彰显中国风,这是一种新型的饮食文化模式,中西合璧的饮食文化队伍将会越来越壮大,人们也可以通过了解饮食文化了解这个世界。

参考文献:

[1]郭鲁芳,金慧君.中、西方餐饮文化差异所带来的思索[A].商业经济文荟,2005(5):13-15.

[2]刘岩松.中西方饮食在文化理念上的差异性[J].经济研究导刊,2010(36):258-259.

[3]赵奇志.中西饮食文化的差异[J].食品工程,(4):14-15.

[4]冯勇,何欢欢.从饮食文化角度浅析中西思维方式的差异[J].消费导刊,

摘要:

本文主要介绍中西文化及其差异,从文化和差异两方面叙述。中西饮食文化的发展历史分别叙述美国和中国不同的文化历程,由于两方面不同的文化底蕴,在饮食上出现了差异。本文主要从观念上的差异、宴会礼仪的差异,中西饮食文化的融合等方面展开论述。最后介绍了西方饮食对中国产生的影响,从正反两方面论述。了解中西饮食文化差异的同时,接受可以接受的部分并与中国饮食相融合,使我们日常生活中的饮食更加丰富,但又不乏自身特色。这才是我们正确对待中西饮食文化的态度。

关键词:

中西差异;饮食文化;餐饮礼节

不同的民族和国家存在着各具特色的饮食文化。具有浓郁的民族性和多样性的特点。饮食文化的差异也是跨文化交际中影响交际结果的因素之一。中国有灿烂丰富、博大精深的饮食文化;西方国家则有精巧专维、自成体系的饮食文明。中西饮食文化的碰撞和交流丰富了全球的饮食文化。

一、从筷子与刀叉文化看中西饮食观念的差异

刀叉因为适应欧洲人饮食习惯而出现,它和筷子影响了东西方不同的生活观念。中华饮食刀叉的出现比筷子要晚很多。据游修龄教授的研究,刀叉的最初起源和欧洲古代游牧民族的生活习惯有关,他们马上生活随身带刀,往往将肉烧熟,割下来就吃。后来走向定居生活后,欧洲以畜牧业为主,面包之类是副食,直接用手拿。主食是牛羊肉,用刀切割肉,送进口里。到了城市定居以后,刀叉进入家庭厨房,才不必随身带。由此不难看出今天作为西方主要餐具的刀和筷子身份很是不同,它功能多样,既可用来宰杀、解剖、切割牛羊的肉,到了烧熟可食时,又兼作餐具。

大约15世纪前后,为了改进进餐的姿势,欧洲人才使用了双尖的叉。用刀把食物送进口里不雅观,改用叉叉住肉块,送进口里显得优雅些。叉子才是严格意义上的餐具,但叉子的弱点是离不开用刀切割在前,所以二者缺一不可。直到17世纪末,英国上流社会开始使用三尖的叉,到18世纪才有了四个叉尖的叉子。所以西方人刀叉并用只不过四五百年的历史。

刀叉和筷子,不仅带来了进食习惯的差异,进而影响了东西方人生活观念。游修龄教授认为,刀叉必然带来分食制,而筷子肯定与家庭成员围坐桌边共同进餐相配。西方一开始就分吃,由此衍生出西方人讲究独立,子女长大后就独立闯世界的想法和习惯。而筷子带来的合餐制,突出了老老少少坐一起的家庭单元,从而让东方人拥有了比较牢固的家庭观念。

虽然不能将不同传统的形成和餐具差异简单对应,但是它们适应和促成了这种分化则是毫无疑问的。筷子是一种文化传统的象征。华人去了美国、欧洲,还是用筷子,文化根深蒂固,而老外们在中国学会了用筷子,回到自己的国家依然要重拾刀叉。

二、烹饪方法的差异

在中国,烹调是一种艺术,与其他艺术一样,体现着严密性与即兴性的统一,所以烹调在中国一直以极强烈的趣味性,甚至还带有一定的游戏性,吸引着以饮食为人生之至乐的中国人。由于发展十分成熟,已经脱离了完全根据菜谱操作的方法,发展到较高级的阶段,每一道菜的都可以在原有的基础上加以发展变化,以适应地区、季节、对象、作用、等级的不同,比如蘑菇炒牛肉,冬天的色宜深些,口味宜重些,夏天的色和味宜清淡些;对于江苏一带的人来说,调味中可加糖,但是面对川湘顾客,则应多放辣。中国的烹饪的方式多种多样,有炒、炸、焖、爆、煎、烩、煮、蒸、烤、腌、冻、拔丝、糖醋等,做出的菜肴让人眼花缭乱。在烹饪大师的眼中,做菜和制作工艺品一样有着高深的学问,即使是同一道菜,不同的厨师会做出不同的口味来。而西方则不同,可以说是相当的理性,他们的烹饪相应的变化较少,同一道菜从洛杉矶到纽约口味不会有太大的变化。虽然显得单调,但是简单的工艺却使得他们能够在大规模的商业化中取得惊人的成功。西餐菜肴烹饪的方法主要是烧、煎、烤、炸、焖,各种原料很少集合烹调,正菜中鱼就是鱼,鸡就是鸡,即使是调味料也是现吃现加。烹饪的全过程比较规范,调料的添加量精确到克,烹调的时间精确到秒,厨师好像化学实验室的实验员。由于西方菜肴制作的规范化,烹调成为一种机械的工作。肯德基炸鸡只要按方配料,油的温度,炸鸡的时间,依规范行事即可,因而厨师的工作就成为一种极其单调的机械性工作。再者,西方人进食的目的首在摄取营养,只要营养够标准,其他尽可宽容,因而今日土豆牛排,明日牛排土豆。美国的食品广告铺天盖地,但万变不离其宗,炸鸡、炸薯条、炸鱼块,其菜肴加工方法简单,基本是机械的混合,所以菜肴的种类极少。

三、餐饮礼节

在餐饮氛围方面,中国人在吃饭的时候都喜欢热闹,很多人围在一起吃吃喝喝,说说笑笑,大家在一起营造一种热闹温暖的用餐氛围。除非是在很正式的宴会上,中国人在餐桌上并没有什么很特别的礼仪。而西方人在用餐时,都喜欢幽雅、安静的环境,他们认为在餐桌上的时候一定要注意自己的礼仪,不可以失去礼节,比如在进餐时不能发出很难听的声音。

中西方宴请礼仪也各具特色。在中国,从古至今大多都以左为尊,在宴请客人时,要将地位很尊贵的客人安排在左边的上座,然后依次安排。在西方则是以右为尊,男女间隔而座,夫妇也分开而座,女宾客的席位比男宾客的席位稍高,男士要替位于自己右边的女宾客拉开椅子,以示对女士的尊重。另外,西方人用餐时要坐正,认为弯腰,低头,用嘴凑上去吃很不礼貌,但是这恰恰是中国人通常吃饭的方式。吃西餐的时候,主人不提倡大肆的饮酒,中国的餐桌上酒是必备之物,以酒助兴,有时为了表示对对方的尊重,喝酒的时候都是一杯一杯的喝。

综上所述,饮食文化的交流存在于我们的日常生活中,并不断充当全球经济文化整合过程中,不同文化之间的“传递带”。它已经成为了一种日益增强的`文化影响力,正发挥着比其他任何全球化单一力量大得多的作用,也在悄悄地改变着全世界。中西饮食文化的碰撞、交流以及融化为全人类文明起到填补和着彩的作用。中西餐饮文化将在交流中共同发展!

参考文献:

[1]胡文仲.中英(英语国家)文化习俗比较[M].外语教学与研究出版社,1999.

[2]林语堂.生活的艺术[M].外语教学与研究出版社,1998.

[3]萨姆瓦.跨文化传通[M].三联书店,1988.

摘要:饮食文化是跨文化交际中非语言文化的重要组成部分之一。了解中西方饮食文化的差异,对于外语学习者来讲,不仅能加深对所学语言文化的理解,更能提高跨文化交际的成功率。本文从中西方饮食文化用餐形式和礼仪的差异、饮食观念的差异、饮食结构的差异、烹饪的差异等方面入手,对中西方饮食文化进行了比较,目的在于明确中西方饮食文化差异,消除界限,增进了解,促进交流。

关键词:中西方饮食文化、文化差异、形式和礼仪、观念结构

一、引言

饮食文化是跨文化交际中非语言文化的重要组成部分之一。饮食与文化紧密相关,不同的民族因其生活地域、气候环境、风俗习惯等因素的影响,而创造出不同的饮食文化。传统的西方文化是畜牧文化和海洋文化,而中国是农耕文化和陆地文化,两种不同的文化反映出人们生活方式的差异,而饮食的差异则深刻透露自身的文化背景。

二、中西用餐形式和礼仪的差异

中国自古以来的礼仪就有以和为贵的思想观念,以和为贵的思想体现在从古至今中国人在开席时都有一家人在一起就餐的观念,体现了中国传统的饮食礼仪。中国人的聚食制延续千年。在中国,任何一个宴席,都是大家团团围坐,共享一席。筵席要用圆桌,从形式上营造团结、礼貌、共趣的气氛。这就是聚食制,聚食制的起源很早,从许多地下文化遗存的发掘可见,古代炊间和聚食的地方是统一的,炊间在住宅的中央,上有天窗出烟,下有篝火,火上安放陶釜、陶鼎,在火上做炊,就食者围火聚食。这种聚食古俗一直延续至后世。美味佳肴放在一桌人的中心,它既是一桌人欣赏、品尝的对象,又是一桌人感情交流的媒介物。这符合中华民族大团圆的普遍心态,反映了中国古典哲学中和的思想。此外,聚食制的长期流传,也是中国重视血缘亲属关系和家族家庭观念在饮食方式上的反映。

三、中西饮食观念的差异

在中国的饮食文化中,对味的追求往往大于对营养的追求,人们在品尝菜肴时,往往会说这盘菜好吃,那道菜不好吃。然而若要进一步问什么叫好吃,为什么好吃,好吃在哪里,恐怕就不容易说清楚了。这说明中国人对饮食追求的是一种难以言传的意境,即使用人们通常所说的色、香、味、形、器把这种境界具体化,恐怕仍很难涵盖其所有意味。在中国,饮食的美性追求显然压倒了理性。这种价值理念的差别构成了中餐过于注重饭菜色、香、味的特点。这种饮食观与中国传统的哲学思想是吻合的。作为东方哲学代表的中国哲学,其显著特点是宏观、直观、模糊及不可捉摸。中国菜的制作方法是调和,最终要调和出一种美好的滋味。这一切讲究的就是分寸,就是整体的配合。它包含了中国哲学丰富的辩证法思想。西方人对待饮食的态度主要坚持其实用性特征,从营养角度出发,重视食物对人体的健康,不追求花样和饭菜的其他功能。他们认为“吃”只是为一个生物的机器加入燃料,保证其正常的工作、生活的运行,只要吃了以后能保持身体健康,抵御病菌的攻击,则其他方面并不讲究。由此可见,饮食在他们心中只是一种维持生命的活动。尤其是在西方国家享有美食之称誉的大国法国,更是追求高质量的营养。法国烹调虽追求美味,但总不忘“营养”这一大前提。在现代西方社会,除了营养的需求外,还十分重视养生,真正做到了以人为本。

四、饮食结构的差异

据西方统计,中国人吃的蔬菜有600多种,是西方的六倍还多。在中国的日常饮食结构中,素菜占据主导位置,而荤菜只有在节假日或者生活水平较高时才进入平常饮食结构中,所以在中国自古就有“菜食”的说法。这种饮食传统,主要与佛教徒的鼓吹有千丝万缕的联系,他们视动物为“生灵”,而认为植物为“无灵”,所以,中国传统文化主张素食主义。西方国家秉承游牧民族、航海民族的文化血统,以渔猎、养殖为生,传统饮食习俗以动物性食料为主,由于西方大多数国家地理位置处于高纬度,有些国家甚至终年积雪,这就造成了西方国家大多数人喜食肉类食物,而且西方人注重营养采取了生熟结合的方式,蔬菜很多时候以前菜沙拉方式出现,饮食结构的不同有时也反映出了各个民族在生活方式和饮食文化方面的不同态度。

五、中西方饮食文化中烹饪的差异

西方烹调遵循的是规范与科学,西方人强调科学与营养,烹饪中处处显示规范与科学。在西方菜谱中,计量都以克计算。这种菜谱似乎是科学的,实际上,这种科学性,也有其弊端,缺乏特色。另外,规范化的烹调甚至要求配料的准备都精确到秒。此外,在西方,一道菜在不同的地区,不同的季节,面对不同的食者,皆为同一味道,毫无变化。中国烹调推崇的是随意与特色,西方人不能理解中国烹调不追求精确的规范化,反而推崇随意性。翻开中国菜谱,常常发现原料的准备量、调料的添加量都是模糊概念。一汤匙、半碗、少许比比皆是,可究竟汤匙、碗有多大,少许是多少,没有具体标准。中国饮食倾向于艺术性。它的特点就是随意性。比如同样一道菜肴,由于地区、作用、等级等不同,可以在操作上做不同的处理。以红烧鱼为例,冬天的色宜深些,口味宜重些,夏天则色和味均清淡些。对于江浙一带的人来说,红烧鱼的调味中可加糖,如面对川湘顾客,则应多放辣。

六、结语

研究跨文化交际中的饮食文化差异将使人们增进相互间的了解,享受不同饮食带来的不同感受,增进文化间的交流、互补与融合,促进人们之间的相互理解和欣赏。笔者相信对中西方国家饮食文化礼仪进行比较,可以增强跨文化交际的意识,从而认识到宽容、理解及尊重文化差异对提高文化交际能力至关重要。

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[3]姜守明,洪霞.西方文化史[M].北京:科学出版社,2004.

[4]徐文苑.中国饮食文化概论[M].北京:清华大学出版社,2006.

总的来说就是中西文化差异当今世界跨文化交际已成为人们生活中不可或缺的内容,是现代交际中引人注目的一个焦点。但在交流中,经常会出现一些不尽人意的地方,其原因正是文化差异,其中最为突出的是中西方文化差异。中西文化历来是世界文化的两大派系,而饮食在两个文化中占有非常重要的地位。中西文化之间的差异从而造就了中西饮食文化的差异,在两种不同的文化背景下,中西方饮食习俗,不论在其特征、功能,还是在其性质、对象等诸多方面,所存在的差异都是非常鲜明的。饮食文化不仅仅是“吃”的问题,是人类在饮食方面的创造行为及其成果,凡涉及人类饮食方面的思想、意识、观念、哲学、艺术等都在饮食文化的范围之内。中西方文化有着相通之处,比如:西方人重视培养奋发向上的精神,中国人则主张积极进取;西方人主张教育为先,中国人倡导发展教育;西方人奉行实用主义,中国人讲究实事求是。但是,中西方文化在很大程度上也存在着不同,在美国,个人自由主义形象在社会生活中表现得非常鲜明,而在中国,家庭责任感会体现出这样的强烈与鲜明。有人说,文化就像一个磁场,在不同的地域有着不同的分布,而同处一个磁场的中西两方的文化,在交流的过程中必然会碰撞出火花。本文主要就中西方在饮食方面的差异为代表来分析中西方文化的差异,从理论和实践两个方面深化跨文化交际研究,以更好的汲取西方文化的精华、弘扬中华文化。一、“分离”与“合同”的特征不同。台湾国学大师钱穆先生曾今说:“文化异, 斯学术亦异。中国重和合, 西方重分别”[1]。中西文化的差异影响了各自的饮食文化。在中西饮食文化之中也明显体现了这种“合同”与“分离”的文化特征。(一)追求自由开放的西方人倾向分门别类。西式菜肴中除少数汤菜, 如法式洋葱大虾汤,是把多种荤素原料混合在一锅里熬炖而成之外, 正菜中各种原料互不相干,鱼就是鱼,虾就是虾,羊排就是羊排。就有搭配,那也是在盘中进行的,不是搅拌在一起的。如 “美式牛扒”, 一边放着牛扒,另一边是意大利青瓜、干笋,切碎加入植物牛油中拌匀,直至凝固,切成小块,放上已煎好的美国牛扒面,即可供食。色彩上形成对比鲜明,但在口味上各种原料互不相混,各是各的味。即使是调味的佐料,如植物牛油、盐,也都是现吃现加,而不是一次性放够。即使有所搭配,也是简单明了。以上种种做法都体现了“西方重分别”的饮食文化。(二) 崇尚和谐的中国人强调统一。中国人的儒家传统思想,主张以“和”为贵,认为其为最美妙的境界,不但体现在社会为人处世中,而且反映在其他各各方面,当然也包括烹饪思想。这种“合同”的思想集中体现在烹饪上就反映为“五味调和”。要用中国传统文化中的阴阳五行指导这一调和,调和既要合乎时序,又要注意时令,才能达到“美味可口”的目的。既烹制食物时需要在保留原味的基础上进行调和,所以中国菜几乎每个菜都要用两种以上的原料和多种调料来烹制。即使是家常菜也如此,一般主要原料选用荤素搭配来调和烹制的,再加上各种调料,如青椒肉丝、宫保鸡丁、乌鸡红枣汤。中国人认为把多种原料放在一起,配料和辅料的味以及调料的味交织融合协调在一起,就如多种化学试剂发生反应,经这种过程搭配出来的菜才美味可口,这也是一种集中个体到整体的过程,只不过还有一个把握火候的问题,也就是哲学上说的“度”,不同的火候就会烹饪出不同的味儿,中国饮食之所以有其独特的魅力, 关键就在于它的味。而美味的产生,在于调和,使之互相通、互助渗透[2]。可见中国人烹调追求整体、统一。二、饮食功能的不同。中国人认为饮食既是一种享受,也是一种情感沟通的重要媒介,又是一项工作,许多工作都是在餐桌旁进行并完成的,这是中方饮食功能突出特色。中国人往往在节日时邀请客人吃饭,美味佳肴放在一桌人的中心,共享一席,除了寒暄客套便是大讲吃经,款款叙来,滔滔不绝,人们相互敬酒、劝菜。伤心时找人吃饭,倾诉自己的惆怅、委屈,抒发自己的郁闷之感,通过别人的开导,寻找心理安慰,以达释放解脱之目的。谈业务时约人吃饭,既可以寻求到更多的机会,又可以了解对方,在轻松地环境中达成协议。表感谢时也请人吃饭,中国人认为享受美味佳肴最能代表真心诚意,饭局俨然成为了中国式生活的缩影。西方人则认为饮食是一种休息,是一种放松,饮食与工作相对分开,工作主要是在办公桌旁进行并完成的。于是,西方人在吃饭时通常不谈工作,或安安静静地独自享用盘中美食,或轻轻松松地听着音乐并吃着食物,或平心静气地谈一些让人放松而愉快的话题,这也仅限于邻座的宾客,而不像中国进行全席的交流,没有中国人进餐时的热闹,缺少了一些中国人聊欢共乐的情调。如果将宴会的交谊性比作舞蹈,可以说,中式宴席好比是集体舞,而西式宴会好比是男女的交谊舞。当然也不会因为工作业务或心情失落、表达谢意之类的而请人吃饭。由此可见,中西方的饮食功能是不同的。三、饮食对象的不同。一个民族的饮食习惯与其生存环境和传统密切相关。自古以来,任何一个时期、任何一个区域,人们的饮食生活都离不开特定的生存环境。生存环境不仅决定了可能获得的食物来源和种类,而且对于食物的获得方式与消费方式等也产生重要影响,“生存环境及其内部诸因素的变化,最终也将导致饮食文化体系的种种变化”[3]。由于中国自古就是农业大国,又加之人口压力以及其他多种原因的存在,使中国的饮食文化主要起源于农耕文化,这就直接影响着人们的食物结构。从“食”的内容来看,中国人有明确的主食和副食之分,主食以谷类及其制品如面食为主,副食则以蔬菜为主,辅以肉类[4]。中国人的饮食从先秦开始,就是以五谷杂粮为主,肉少粮多,辅以蔬菜植物类菜品占主导地位。据西方的植物学者的调查,中国人吃的蔬菜有600多种,比西方多六倍。在中国人的菜肴里,素菜是平常食品,荤菜只有在节假日或生活水平较高时才进入平常的饮食结构, 所以自古便有“菜食”之说。中国人以淀粉为能量的主要来源,荤素搭配比较均衡,喜食果蔬,讲究杂食。对于蔬菜的烹调以熟食为主,不喜欢生吃蔬菜或生饮果汁。这一饮食习惯又深受佛教文化的影响,佛教倡导吃斋饭,即素食,认为动物是“生灵”,而生灵是不可以杀死的,更不能食用,另外道教亦倡导忌食鱼肉。中国人一般还喜欢热食,主菜大多是热的,他们认为菜凉了,就失去了菜原有的味道,对肠胃也不好,只有趁热吃才能吃出菜的鲜味,吃到菜原有的特色。虽然随着人们生活水平的提高,加大了肉类菜肴和奶类食品的比重,肉食已成为寻常百姓餐桌上不可或缺的佳肴,但以蔬菜为主导的意识却仍然植根于人们的观念中。在西方,其农业结构是一种农牧混合结构,由于其地理气候不太适合农耕却有利于牧草生长,使得畜牧业占据了农业经济的主导地位。独特的临海区位优势使得他们的航海业也非常发达。西方饮食文化就起源于这种畜牧文化,畜牧文化决定了西方饮食结构尤其偏重于肉类与乳制品,其膳食结构以动物性食物为主。没有主食和副食之分,以高蛋白、高脂肪、高糖分为典型特征,主要以牛肉、羊肉、猪肉等为主要菜肴。吃、穿、用都取之于动物,连西药都从动物身上取料炼制。西方人喜爱冷食、凉菜,从冷菜拼盘、色拉到冷饮,餐桌上少不了冷菜,而且西方人多生吃蔬菜。肉食在饮食中的比例一直很高,故他们国家的人身体普遍比中国人健壮:高个、长腿、肩部宽大、肌肉发达, 而中国人则显得身材瘦小、体质较弱。但西方人也认识到这种饮食习惯对身体健康的危害,开始转向以植物蔬菜为主的清淡型饮食,西方人的餐桌上蔬菜的种类及份量逐渐明显增加且也趋向于熟吃。但是肉食在饮食中的比例仍然要比中国人的高。总体来看,中西方的饮食结构日趋合理化、营养化。孙中山先生曾说:“中国常人所饮者为清茶,所食者为淡饭,而加以蔬菜、豆腐。此等之食料,为今日卫生家所考得为最有益于养生者也。故中国穷乡僻壤之人,饮食不及酒肉者,多为上寿”[5]。他还认为“欧美人之所饮者独酒, 所食者腥腹,亦相习成风,故虽在前有科学之提倡,在后有重法之厉禁”[6]。孙中山先生讲了中西饮食的利弊,根据中西方饮食对象的差异,有人把中国人称为植物性格,把西方人称为动物性格。这种性格反映在文化行为价值观上就是,中国人喜欢安土重迁,固本守己,而西方人则喜欢开拓、冒险、冲突。美国民俗学家露丝·本尼迪克特曾经提出过“文化模式”这一理论,她认为中国人的文化性格类似于古典世界的阿波罗式,而西方人的文化性格则近似于现代世界的浮士德式。四、中西饮食归属及性质的不同。中西方饮食性质的差异,与它们各自的生活方式及生活节奏是相一致的。在西方,一般实行工资制,重复的工作比较多,且生活节奏较快,人们有意无意地受工作节奏的影响,通常工作时工作,游戏时游戏。生活的单一乏味导致了饮食结构的单一性并对此熟视无睹,西方人平常享用的罐头快餐等,口味千篇一律,与从事的工作一样单调重复,他们对此很漠然,就像对一个生物的机器注入燃料,只要他们吃了以后能保持身体的结实,足以抵御病菌的感染,其他皆不足道[7]。能保证机器的正常运转就可以了。以完成任务为目的,自然无兴趣、滋味可言。中国则不然,工作节奏相对比较慢,工作形式多样,往往追求两全齐美,边工作边游戏。当然饮食结构也相对复杂,对于色、香、味、形、质、意等都相当讲究,并且种类之多,无所不有。中国人饮食的目的,不同于西方人,除了果腹充饥,同时还满足对美味的渴望,给人赏心悦目之感,才会有食欲。厨师在炒菜时一般上下晃动炒勺,注意烹炒的节奏感。这些自然不会提高工作效率,但却增加了劳动者的工作趣味,只有在这种气氛中工作才会使身心愉悦,才能体现出中国菜的创造性和艺术性。五、规范科学与随意特色的烹调准则不同。西方人在摄取食物时基本上是从科学的角度出发的,十分注意营养搭配,不论食物的色泽鲜嫩怎样,营养是一到菜谱成功与否的标准,在营养的标准上讲究蛋白质、脂肪、碳水化合物、维生素及各类无机元素的含量是否搭配合宜,热量的供给是否恰到好处以及这些营养成分是否能为进食者充分吸收,有无其他副作用。对他们而言,饮食只是一种手段,所以态度也就较为随便,吃得也较为简单。在西方, 盛大的西餐宴席通常不过是六道菜,而且其中只有两道菜算得上是菜,其余不过是陪衬。平时宴请,饭菜更为简单。还有一种聚会,称之为“Party”,主人只提供饮料、酒和一些简单的食物,如奶酪、炸薯条、三明治等, 并不提供饭菜。可见, 他们将吃饭看成是聚会和交流的机会,吃的东西并不是最重要的,享受在饮食中基本上不占重要位置,故而不会像中国过分地追求特色口味。早餐往往是一个鸡蛋、一杯牛奶、几片面包再加上一根香肠,热量非常充足。午餐往往是自助快餐,即使是最讲究的晚餐也不外乎是面包、薯条、香肠、牛排、炸鸡、奶酪等, 也很简单,但营养十分丰富。西方人相关的烹调全过程也都严格按照科学规范行事。从菜谱的制定就可以发现,西方菜谱中的计量都以精确数字计算。从表面上看,菜谱似乎是科学的,西方人买菜和制作菜肴也总是对照着菜谱。但相比中国烹调,它是一个非常机械的东西,在复杂的具体情况面前往往是无能为力的,比如为了体现客人身份,在做菜时要打破常规,在味道花色上稍作调整,使之精致一些。这对于中国的厨师轻而易举,而对于西方厨师就会不知所措。而这种一致性导致了西方饮食的一个弊端--缺乏特色。另外, 规范化的烹调要求配料的准备、调料的添加精确到克,烹调时间精确到秒。由于西方菜肴制作的规范化,使得烹调成为一种机械性的工作,从洛杉矶到纽约,牛排都只有一种味道,毫无创造性和艺术可言。而且在西方,一道菜在不同的季节不同的地区,都是同一种味道,几乎没有变化。即使是高档的宴席,也不过是更讲究餐具,布置更华贵,服务更为周到而已,菜仍旧是一个味。西方人这种重科学、重营养的理性饮食观念同西方整个哲学体系也是相适应的,形而上学是西方哲学的主要特点。西方哲学所研究的对象为事物之理,事物之理常为形上学理,形上学理互相连贯,便结成形上哲学。这一哲学给西方文化带来生机,使之在自然科学上、心理学上、方法论上实现了突飞猛进的发展。但在另一些方面,这种哲学主张大大地起了阻碍作用,如饮食文化,就不可避免地落后了,到处打上了方法论中的形而上学痕迹。

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