经济学毕业论文英文文献翻译

经济学毕业论文英文文献翻译

INTO THE STORMFOR much of the past year the fast-growing economies of the emerging world watched the Western financial hurricane from afar. Their own banks held few of the mortgage-based assets that undid the rich world’s financial firms. Commodity exporters were thriving, thanks to high prices for raw materials. China’s economic juggernaut powered on. And, from Budapest to Brasília, an abundance of credit fuelled domestic demand. Even as talk mounted of the rich world suffering its worst financial collapse since the Depression, emerging economies seemed a long way from the centre of the storm.过去一年的大部分时间里，高速发展的新兴国家一直在远处观望着西方国家的金融风暴。他们的银行仅持有少量抵押资产，而类似的资产已经破坏了发达国家的金融公司。商品出口商因为原材料的高价格而日渐富有。中国不可抗拒的经济力量已然开启，而且信贷刺激的内需从布达佩斯到巴西利亚都表现得非常充足。尽管大萧条后关于西方国家受难于金融崩塌的话题与日俱增，但新兴国家似乎距离金融风暴的中心还有一段距离。No longer. As foreign capital has fled and confidence evaporated, the emerging world’s stockmarkets have plunged (in some cases losing half their value) and currencies tumbled. The seizure in the credit market caused havoc, as foreign banks abruptly stopped lending and stepped back from even the most basic banking services, including trade credits.不过目前的情况不再是那样了，随着境外资本的流失和经济信心的消失，新兴国家股市暴跌（有些地区已经腰斩），本币迅速贬值。由于外国银行突然中断贷款，并且收缩了包括贸易信贷在内的基础银行服务，新兴国家的信贷市场突发混乱，并引发了一场浩劫。Like their rich-world counterparts, governments are battling to limit the damage (see article). That is easiest for those with large foreign-exchange reserves. Russia is spending $220 billion to shore up its financial services industry. South Korea has guaranteed $100 billion of its banks’ debt. Less well-endowed countries are asking for help. Hungary has secured a EURO5 billion ($ billion) lifeline from the European Central Bank and is negotiating a loan from the IMF, as is Ukraine. Close to a dozen countries are talking to the fund about financial help.新兴国家的政府和发达国家的政府一样都在为控制损失程度而奋斗。不过对于外汇储备充足的国家来说难度会小一些：俄罗斯斥资2200亿美元重振金融服务行业；韩国政府担保了1000亿美元的银行债务。而那些储备并不充足的国家正在四处求援：匈牙利成功向欧洲央行求得了50亿欧元（约66亿美元）的生命线，同时也在同国际货币基金组织协商借款事宜，同时向国际货币基金组织求援的还有乌克兰。近一打儿的国家在向基金组织求助。Those with long-standing problems are being driven to desperate measures. Argentina is nationalising its private pension funds, seemingly to stave off default (see article). But even stalwarts are looking weaker. Figures released this week showed that China’s growth slowed to 9% in the year to the third quarter-still a rapid pace but a lot slower than the double-digit rates of recent years.有持续问题的国家正棋行险招：阿根廷正在将私人养老金国有化，意图阻止违约的发生。即使强有力的国家也表现出虚弱一面：本周公布的数字表明今年中国的增长率在第三季度减缓为9%，虽然增速还算快，但是与近些年的两位数增率相比缓慢了不少。Blowing cold on credit对信贷没兴趣The various emerging economies are in different states of readiness, but the cumulative impact of all this will be enormous. Most obviously, how these countries fare will determine whether the world economy faces a mild recession or something nastier. Emerging economies accounted for around three-quarters of global growth over the past 18 months. But their economic fate will also have political consequences.众多新兴经济的意愿并不相同，但是累计在一起的影响力却非同一般。最明显的就是这些国家的表现将会决定世界经济所面临的是一个较为缓和的衰退还是更可怕的情况。在过去18个月的全球经济增长中，新兴经济贡献了75%。但是他们的经济命运也会有一些政治后果。In many places-eastern Europe is one example (see article)-financial turmoil is hitting weak governments. But even strong regimes could suffer. Some experts think that China needs growth of 7% a year to contain social unrest. More generally, the coming strife will shape the debate about the integration of the world economy. Unlike many previous emerging-market crises, today’s mess spread from the rich world, largely thanks to increasingly integrated capital markets. If emerging economies collapse-either into a currency crisis or a sharp recession-there will be yet more questioning of the wisdom of globalised finance.在类似东欧的很多地区，金融混乱目前的打击目标是软弱的政府；但强硬的政权同样会尝到苦果。一些专家认为中国每年需要7%的增长率来阻止社会动荡的发生。总体来说，如此争端必将影响全球经济一体化的讨论。与以往数次新兴经济危机不同，这次的混乱始于发达国家，很大程度上要归咎于一体化的资本市场。一旦新兴经济崩溃，无论是货币危机还是剧烈的经济萧条，大家对于金融全球化是否属明智之举会有更多的质疑。Fortunately, the picture is not universally dire. All emerging economies will slow. Some will surely face deep recessions. But many are facing the present danger in stronger shape than ever before, armed with large reserves, flexible currencies and strong budgets. Good policy-both at home and in the rich world-can yet avoid a catastrophe.幸运的是上述恐怖的场景没有发生在全球的每个角落：所有的新兴经济都会减缓发展速度，有一些也必将面临深度萧条；但是更多的国家在面临当下危机的时候却拥有比以往任何时候都强壮的形式，用充足的储备、弹性的货币和强大的预算武装自己。新兴国家及发达国家良好的政策可以避免大灾难的发生。One reason for hope is that the direct economic fallout from the rich world’s disaster is manageable. Falling demand in America and Europe hurts exports, particularly in Asia and Mexico. Commodity prices have fallen: oil is down nearly 60% from its peak and many crops and metals have done worse. That has a mixed effect. Although it hurts commodity-exporters from Russia to South America, it helps commodity importers in Asia and reduces inflation fears everywhere. Countries like Venezuela that have been run badly are vulnerable (see article), but given the scale of the past boom, the commodity bust so far seems unlikely to cause widespread crises.至少有一个原因值得抱有希望：发达国家此次灾难的直接经济影响还是在可控的范围内。欧美锐减的需求对出口来说无疑是一个打击，特别是对亚洲和墨西哥。商品价格走低：原油价格与巅峰时期比较已经下降了60%，很多粮食和金属类商品跌幅更大。这两个现象有混合效果：尽管从俄罗斯到南美的商品（能源）出口企业备受打击，但却帮助了亚洲的商品（能源）进口商，并且缓和了各地对通胀的恐惧。委内瑞拉的情形一直很糟糕，也很脆弱；不过由于过去极度的繁荣，商品价格下跌目前还不会引发大范围传播的危机。The more dangerous shock is financial. Wealth is being squeezed as asset prices decline. China’s house prices, for instance, have started falling (see article). This will dampen domestic confidence, even though consumers are much less indebted than they are in the rich world. Elsewhere, the sudden dearth of foreign-bank lending and the flight of hedge funds and other investors from bond markets has slammed the brakes on credit growth. And just as booming credit once underpinned strong domestic spending, so tighter credit will mean slower growth.比商品价格更令人震惊的事情发生在金融领域。由于资产价格的下降，财富水平正在被挤压缩水。以中国房价为例，目前已经开始下跌。尽管新兴国家的消费者比发达国家的负债水平低很多，上述情况还是会挫伤国内的经济信心。在其他方面，国外银行借款骤然匮乏、对冲基金以及其他投资者逃离债券市场，这些因素给信贷增长踩了一脚急刹车。正如发达的信贷曾经强力支撑国内支出那样，信贷紧缩将意味着增长放缓。Again, the impact will differ by country. Thanks to huge current-account surpluses in China and the oil-exporters in the Gulf, emerging economies as a group still send capital to the rich world. But over 80 have deficits of more than 5% of GDP. Most of these are poor countries that live off foreign aid; but some larger ones rely on private capital. For the likes of Turkey and South Africa a sudden slowing in foreign financing would force a dramatic adjustment. A particular worry is eastern Europe, where many countries have double-digit deficits. In addition, even some countries with surpluses, such as Russia, have banks that have grown accustomed to easy foreign lending because of the integration of global finance. The rich world’s bank bail-outs may limit the squeeze, but the flow of capital to the emerging world will slow. The Institute of International Finance, a bankers’ group, expects a 30% decline in net flows of private capital from last year.需要再次重申的是，冲击的表现会因国家的不同而有所区别。多亏中国和海湾产油国经常项目下的巨额顺差，新型经济整体还不断的向发达国家输送资本。但是80 多个国家的财政赤字已经超过GDP的5%，其中的多数是那些依靠国外救助过活得贫困国家；不过也有一些依靠私人资本的大国。对于类似土耳其和南非的国家来说，突然减缓的境外融资迫使其进行大幅调整。东欧的情况特别令人担忧，那里的不少国家赤字水平已经达到了两位数。另外，象俄罗斯这样处于顺差的国家，其银行也逐渐适应了可以轻易从外国取得的贷款，原因自然是全球金融一体化。发达国家的救助计划也许可以限制财富被挤压的水平，但资本流向新兴世界的速度无疑会减慢。国际金融研协会预测私人资本的净流量比去年回减少30%。A wing and a prayer飞行之翼与祈祷者This credit crunch will be grim, but most emerging markets can avoid catastrophe. The biggest ones are in relatively good shape. The more vulnerable ones can (and should) be helped.信贷紧缩必将令人生畏，不过多数新兴市场可以躲过一劫，最大的市场形势还相当不错。比较脆弱的市场可以（也应该）得到帮助。Among the giants, China is in a league of its own, with a $2 trillion arsenal of reserves, a current-account surplus, little connection to foreign banks and a budget surplus that offers lots of room to boost spending. Since the country’s leaders have made clear that they will do whatever it takes to cushion growth, China’s economy is likely to slow-perhaps to 8%-but not collapse. Although that is not enough to save the world economy, such growth in China would put a floor under commodity prices and help other countries in the emerging world.在那些坚强的巨人中，中国卓然不群：手握2万亿美元的储备，经常项下的顺差状态，与国外银行罕有关联，过剩的预算给推动支出留有足够空间。鉴于国家领导人已经明确表示将不惜一切代价为经济增长减速缓冲，中国的经济增长应该会减缓到大约8%的水平，但是决不会崩溃。虽然这不足以挽救世界经济，但是该增长率将会为商品价格建底并帮到新兴世界的其他国家。The other large economies will be harder hit, but should be able to weather the storm. India has a big budget deficit and many Brazilian firms have a large foreign-currency exposure. But Brazil’s economy is diversified and both countries have plenty of reserves to smooth the shift to slower growth. With $550 billion of reserves, Russia ought to be able to stop a run on the rouble. In the short-term at least, the most vulnerable countries are all smaller ones.其他的经济大国会受到更大的冲击，不过应该可以禁受住风暴侵袭。印度的财政赤字巨大，巴西很多公司面临巨大的外汇风险。但巴西经济已经实现多样化，同时上述两个国家拥有充足的储备来平稳过渡到缓慢的增长。俄罗斯掌握着5500亿美元的储备，应该能够阻止对卢布的抢购。至少在短期内，小国家才是最弱不禁风的。There will be pain as tighter credit forces adjustments. But sensible, speedy international assistance would make a big difference. Several emerging countries have asked America’s Federal Reserve for liquidity support; some hope that China will bail them out. A better route is surely the IMF, which has huge expertise and some $250 billion to lend. Sadly, borrowing from the fund carries a stigma. That needs to change. The IMF should develop quicker, more flexible financial instruments and minimise the conditions it attaches to loans. Over the past month deft policymaking saw off calamity in the rich world. Now it is time for something similar in the emerging world.受到紧缩信贷压力进行的调整必然带来痛苦，但快速的国际援助是明智之举，因为这会让结果很不相同。一些新兴国家已经向美联储求援以缓解流动性问题；有一些则希望中国可以拯救他们与水火。更佳的求救路线莫过于国际货币基金组织，因为它掌握大量的专门知识和2500亿美元的可出借款项。不幸的是人们认为向基金借款有辱其名，国际货币基金组织应该推出更快捷、更灵活的金融工具，同时实现借贷条件最小化。过去数月中，机敏的决策驱散了发达国家的灾难。现在也正是新兴世界发生类似事情的时候了。

Since the second half of 2007, the international economic situation has undergone a marked change. By the . sub-prime mortgage crisis and other factors, the major developed countries, economic growth slowed down. In this context, China's foreign trade exports were seriously affected, and the performance of the export growth slowed down, all kinds of barriers to trade increased and so on. Thus, in the new international economic situation requires us to change the mode of growth of export trade and promote sound and rapid development of foreign trade.

The Chinese economy continually growth and the world economics growth asthenia as well as US dollar unceasing depreciation, specially American Government in the situation which the domestic unemployment rate and the international trade trade deficit rise unceasingly, American some people the American manufacturing industry worker will be unemployed with the China and America trade deficit reason sums up as the Renminbi exchange rate First, the Renminbi exchange rate is not the China and America trade deficit principal factor 1st, China and America balance of trade series analysis The China and America statistical figure difference so greatly mainly has two aspect reasons: (1)th, when American statistics China through Hong Kong partial transit trade repetition computation in China to US's exportation aspect. (2)th, American trade data collection process existence very many questions. 2nd, the China and America trade deficit is any reason creates (1)th, American Government to the high-tech product exportation control policy, is the Chinese and American trade not balanced important reason. (2)th, US the multinational corporation which invests in China is a balance of trade important China has the high trade surplus to US, but these trade surplus very major part comes from US in China's multinational corporation, demonstrated according to China's statistical data: In the Chinese import and export volume 56% is realizes by the overseas-funded enterprise, China is becoming US's multinational corporation to reduce the production cost, one of increase profit main channels. (3)th, US's trade statistics report has not collected the multinational corporation the American domestic investment income computation 3rd, tucks up the American foreign trade deficit the veil US's import comes from massively our country company in the production line which overseas sets up, in other words, American Multinational corporation from the overseas subsidiary company input cargo, the realistic trade many all is the company and the company, but non-country and country single card trade. English economist Julius on once to American trade revenue and expenditure statistics in, if adds on its overseas subsidiary company in the local repetition computation, that, in 1986 US's trade revenue and expenditure on became 57,000,000,000 US dollars earnings from 144,000,000,000 US dollars trade according to the American Department of commercial affairs statistics, in 1995 the American Multinational corporation subsidiary company sales volume surpassed 210,000,000 US dollars, in addition commodity service export amount 794,000,000,000 US dollars, nearly amounted to 3 ten thousand hundred million US dollars in the same year, but the foreign country exports and the foreign corporation to US in US's subsidiary company internal sales volume sum total is 2,400,000,000,000 US dollars, today US is not the world biggest trade deficit country, but was in the world one of minority several big trade surplus countries. US to the overseas export amount and the American Multinational corporation's in foreign market sale, both sum 2002nd year amounted to 3,000,000,000,000 US time, US's import amount and the foreign multinational corporation's in American market sale, both the sum is 2,400,000,000,000 US dollars, thus has created US to various countries trade gross profit 600,000,000,000 US dollars, this is analyzes when the American foreign trade deficit should comprehensively grasp the question the essence to be at. 4th, US trade deficit true reason (1) 20th century 70's, because two petroleum crises cause the world oil price two large rises, in addition comes from Japanese and the developing nation strong economical competitive power and the US dollar exchange rate strong trend of, these all caused the American commodity, the service trade deficit to achieve 152,000,000,000 US dollars peaks in 1987. (2) US worsens the low savings ratio, US must raise the construction fund from the international money market, namely allows temporary credit the fund to carry on the massive investment construction. (3) American Multinational corporation “the person on one's own side” who acts in the American import trade the role, namely the partial trade deficit in fact is “the commodity backflow”. China and US are a supplementary economy, maintains the existing exchange rate system is the win-win situation

翻译如下：China's sustained economic growth and weak world economic growth and the continuous devaluation of dollar, particularly the . government in the domestic unemployment rate and rising international trade deficit of the circumstances, the United States some people will be unemployed manufacturing workers in the United States and the reasons for the Sino-US trade deficit Summed up as the RMB exchange , the renminbi exchange rate is not the main cause of a Sino-US trade deficit, the EC analysis of Sino-US trade balance statistics difference between the two countries so large there are two main aspects of reasons: (1), the United States statistics will be part of China's re-exports through Hong Kong Double-counting of trade in China's exports to the United States (2), the . trade data collection process has many , Sino-US trade deficit is what causes (1), the . Government's high-tech products export control policy, Sino-US trade imbalance is an important reason. (2), . investment in China's balance of trade of multinational companies is another important reason. China to the United States despite the existence of high trade surplus, but a large part of the trade surplus from the . multinational companies in China, according to Chinese statistics show that: China's import and export amount of 56 percent is from foreign-funded enterprises to achieve, China is . multinational companies to reduce production costs and increase profits one of the main channel.(3), the . trade statistics report and the multinational corporations will not return to the United States of the investment income , Liaokai . foreign trade deficit veil of the United States imports a large number of companies from abroad set up their own production lines, in other words, the . subsidiary of multinational companies import goods from overseas, the reality of the trade are many companies and the companies, not countries with national The document economist Julius once the . balance of trade statistics, if coupled with its overseas subsidiaries in the local double-counting, then in 1986 the . trade balance from a deficit of 144 billion . dollars into 57 billion A surplus of . dollars. According to the . Department of Commerce statistics, in 1995 the . subsidiary of multinational companies in sales over 210 million . dollars, with exports of goods and services the same year 794 billion . dollars, almost 3 trillion . dollars, and foreign exports to the . and foreign companies in the . , A subsidiary of the internal sales total of trillion . dollars, the United States today is not the world's largest trade deficit country, but the world on a few large trade surplus with one of the . exports to foreign multinational companies in the United States and abroad for sale on the market, both in 2002 and amounted to 3 trillion . dollars. Over the same period, imports of . and foreign multinational companies in the . market sales, and for both of trillion . dollars, resulting in the United States on the world's total trade surplus of 600 billion . dollars, and this is when the analysis of the . foreign trade deficit Should comprehensively grasp the essence of the , the . trade deficit, the real reason (1) in the 1970s, the two oil crises led to two world oil prices rose sharply, from Japan and developing countries with strong economic competitiveness and the strength of the dollar exchange rate, these Are making . goods, services trade deficit in 1987 reached a peak of 152 billion . dollars.(2) deterioration of the low . savings rate, the United States must from the international financial market, raising funds for construction, that is, factoring funds to invest heavily in the building. (3) . multinational companies in the United States in the import trade played by the "one of us" role, that is part of the trade deficit is actually "returning goods." China and the United States is a complementary economy, maintain the existing exchange rate system is a win-win situation.

经济学人翻译论文英文文献

整个自然科学和社会科学的循环经济，是一个交叉学科，需要使用的知识，生态学，经济学，进一步划分也涉及哲学，植物和动物生态学，资源经济学，环境经济学，生态经济，工业生态等方面的内容，研究循环经济系统，往往采用物质流分析（分析资源的利用效率），生命周期分析，环境管理系统和其他工具。循环经济的发展理念，发展模式，产业形态，是一个系统的科学。 循环经济是人类经济活动的生态规律的科学的研究。循环经济是基于资源的使用效率和环境友好型的社会生产和再生产活动，新的生产方式的特点。所不同的是，传统的经济增长模式：传统的地球，从地球的一端无限的资源库和污水处理领域的经济增长，大量的矿产资源的消费电子产品在生产中排放大量的废水，废气和环境的废渣，另一端插入到“资源 - 产品 - 废弃物”的线性增长模式的体现。循环经济需要使用所有可用资源的生产和再生产周期的各个方面，提高资源的利用效率，物质代谢和/或共生关系，延伸产业链，被遗弃的 - “资源 - 产品 - 再生资源”的表现集约型增长模式的形式。循环经济是解决资源约束和环境污染的矛盾，这个想法的？发展是人类社会实现可持续发展的有效途径。 循环经济在最近几年中，不仅融入了中央决策在中国领域的，在前所未有的关注，也成为研究领域的重点。从“循环经济在中国长大，当地产业的实践经验的总结，循环经济发展规划的制定和实施，除了循环经济科学发展的理念，协调，可持续发展的体现，但也反映了发展循环经济的重要意义，为中国提高资源的利用效率，缓解压力，对环境的污染，实现社会经济的可持续发展。 ：典型案例的卡伦堡模式 卡伦堡是一个沿海城市在丹麦，是世界上最成功的工业生态系统运行的模型。工业生态系统的植物群和动物群的生态系统中的共生原则适用于工业活动，形成了企业共存“产业链”。在卡伦堡生态工业园区，不同的企业从废物变成原料贸易有着密切的联系。卡伦堡生态工业园区，主要工业企业，电厂，炼油厂，制药厂和石膏板厂。四企业为核心，废物或产品在生产过程中，通过各种形式的贸易为其他公司使用的原材料，或取代部分的原料;本企业链的温室农场，养殖场，硫酸厂供热站，水泥工厂，农场。 循环经济的内涵及产生背景 周期“循环经济”的生态意义周期，而不是??经济学意义上的循环。生态循环，经济活动中的物质循环和新陈代谢，这是循环经济的讨论的重点主要涉及物质流循环在经济意义上，从时间的角度来看，体现在循环的区域互动的要求，从空间 循环经济是人类发展模式的反映，是一个不断发展的完善的过程。下的第一次工业革命之前，人类干预自然的能力，环境污染和生态破坏是唯一的局部的，小的，不起眼，它的影响是有限的。工业革命后，社会生产力的快速发展，人口迅速增长，人类社会活动的规模不断扩大，自然索取的能力，环境的干预也越来越大，资源消耗大，速度快，废弃物排放量显着增加，结合的局限性和主观睡眠的理解，从而导致更多和更严重的环境污染问题，污染事故频繁发生，对人类生命构成更大的威胁财产以及社会经济的发展，以在1962年，美国生物学家蕾切尔·卡逊出版的“寂静的春天”一书描述的大量使用农药对人类和环境的危害骇人听闻的案件，生动的语言，敲响了工业社会，的环境危机警报。1970年4月22日，美国举行了大规模的游行示威的保护地球环境，它标志着的人的高度关注有关全球环境问题的要求。在1972年，一个民间学术组织的科学家，经济学家和企业家 - 罗马俱乐部发表“的极限增长”的报告中，第一次正式发出警告世界：“如果世界人口，工业化，污染，粮食生产和资源消耗的趋势继续，的极限的增长在此星球有一天会出现在未来的一百年。 “这份报告被认为是第一个系统研究经济增长与人口，自然资源，生态环境之间的关系，科学和技术的进步。报告查看自然资源和环境容量的几分之一片面和悲观，但供应不符合点的外延生长，还提醒人们，生态环境作为经济增长的一个制约因素。从那时起引起世界的关注。同年，联合国发表了“人类环境宣言”， “郑重声明只有一个地球，人类开发和利用自然，但也承担了义务，保持自然的。 20世纪70年代，三大石油危机，让人们感受到在危机中的资源供给和提高资源的利用效率已成为人们的追求。在同一时间，在快速增长的固体废物管理战略，这是在海外发展循环经济和建立资源循环型首先，西方国家的社会中，大量的自然资源消耗在工业化的过程中，经历了长时间的产业化发展积累的大量的废物，如废钢铁，老旧汽车，废旧家电，废纸，废物循环再造的目标要求，以降低经济发展的成本。事实上，正是因为这些废物的基础上回收之前，只有发展循环经济的物质基础。 />近年来，中国的宣传，以促进世界经济周期的研究和发展。发布国内外一方面，大量的生态和经济方面的工业生态学专着或文章，但几乎没有循环经济专着;没有看到国外高等教育的学科设置的循环经济。另一方面，截至2004年底，中国不仅是循环经济的文章，专着或汇编出版也已发表论文近，循环经济是它的出版业在2005年的热门话题。可以说，循环经济是一个彻头彻尾的概念，中国学者根据自己的国情，创新发展理论和发展模式，同时，经济的情况下，全球化的日益推进，循环经济是国外学者已经提出了“中国因素”也不例外，在中国环境与发展国际合作委员会（国合会）由中国专家合作的外国专家参与深化循环的理论研究中国的循环经济概念的世界经济，外国专家，促进循环经济在中国的发展，吸引了国际组织和外国政府的关注，并成为与中国合作的重点领域之一。 涉及每一个公民，每一个家庭，每一个社区，每一个企业，每一个地区，乃至整个中国民族的主要经济周期的执行情况。例如，一个家庭的节能，节水，废物分类活动;一个办公建筑的能源的节约，前面和背面的复印纸，碳粉盒，水的使用，一个干净的生产企业，综合利用资源产业的发展，社会的废物分离和回收，利用太阳能再利用，这些活动可以产生降低系统物质流的影响，因而是圆形区域的经济。随着中国的工业化和城市化是不是还没有完成，它是可以实现材料减少经济活动，除非它会不再开发，这是违反我们的主张和推进循环经济的出发点，这是说，没有集中中国，以促进循环经济的发展。所谓的窄废物再利用循环经济，循环经济发展，相当于“垃圾经济”，“范围内的废物经济”，日本提出建设循环型社会，强调废物减量化，再利用和回收，与相应的静脉产业。周围形成所谓的“静脉产业废弃物资源化产业，与动脉产业动脉产业“指的是对自然资源的开发和利用，形成了行业。 研究基金会循环经济 讨论学科循环经济的基础，不能离开的综合性自然科学和社会科学。 1，生态基础 生态学研究生物和环境科学之间。作为仿生学循环经济是研究人的自然代谢，循环，共生和组织经济活动的法律为蓝本，英国学者坦斯利（AG坦斯利）1936年生态系统的概念，强调一定的自然生物和地理，生物和生物功能非生物环境统一的生态系统，包括生物和周围所有的空间和所有的生物直接或间接影响的有机体;影响经济增长，开发，复制，形态特征，生理功能和地理分布的环境条件，生态因素。法律生态系统可以归纳如下：整体，协调，循环，再生，生态规律已经被应用的领域，如农业，工业，循环经济的实践。 2，经济基础 > 从经济学的出生日期，资源分配，特别是分配稀缺资源的经济学的研究对象。渐渐稀少的生态环境条件，经济将扩大对生态环境的研究对象也就不足为奇了。 资源经济学，资源经济学认为经济的性质，将其转换为生存而数据的天然资源。资源的自然和社会资源，社会资源，包括人力，知识，信息，科学和技术，以及积累的资本和社会财富，其最大的特点是累积性和可变性。自然资源，包括土地，森林，草原，降水，河流和湖泊，能源，矿产资源，其本质特征是有限的，某些类型的不可再生的资源。循环经济研究与资源经济学包括的关系之间的供应和需求，价格和税收上的供给和需求的影响之间的关系。废物变成原始材料“链接之间的行业的能力，以形成和最终决定由资源经济学。 环境经济学。各国政府促进循环经济的发展，因为它涉及到的外部问题的原因。福利经济学告诉我们：如果一种商品的生产或消费会带来成本，也不能反映在市场价格将产生“外部效应”。外部是有害还是有益的影响不会直接参与这样的活动，企业或个人的一些产品的生产和消费。之一的有利影响，外部经济“，否则”外部不经济的“生态环境是一种公共产品。作为一个公共的环境中，”公地悲剧“ - 过度使用的非独占性消费往往由于供应不足，导致“搭便车”心理 - 往往导致消费的非竞争性。可以通过循环经济的发展，同时提高自然资源的利用效率，保护环境的目的。 /> 3，工业生态学 产业生态化，模仿自然生态的纪律，耶鲁大学和麻省理工学院于1997年发布了世界上第一个“产业生态学杂志。编辑器的里德Lifset在第一个问题：“工业生态系统是一个迅速发展的科学分支，从本地，区域和全球层面，它是一个系统的能量流在产品，工艺，工业部门和行业的研究经济其重点是研究和材料流动，产业的作用，在产品生命周期中减少对环境的压力。“工业生态试图仿照自然的物质循环，企业间的系统耦合的性质，生态链，产业链，实现多级传输，物质循环和能量效率的产出和资源的可持续利用。在自然生态系统中，生产者，消费者的消费和再生的生产相对简单，稳定，但生态产业体系，无论是技术水平，还远没有达到水平的自然世界之间的联系。 4，生态经济学 生态经济学是整个社会科学（经济学）的一个跨学科的自然科学（生态学）。生态经济学是研究再生产过程中，经济系统和生态系统之间的物质循环，能量转换，和值的扩散规律及其应用的科学。生态环境已经从纯粹的自然意义上的人类生存的因子在社会意义上的经济因素，这有两层含义。首先，在与人类生活需要良好的生态环境已经出现供不应求的良好环境，已成为幸福的人们追求的目标之一。二，自然生态环境的废物吸收能力或接近饱和，在某些领域甚至已重载继续使用它的生产必须复制新的环境容量，因此需要投入资金，为“建设（生态恢复与污染控制）良好的生态环境，已成为“产品”的劳动。换句话说，良好的生态环境为目标，从生产的角度来看，具有双重功能，那就是，从生活的角度，已成为生产要素和条件 5，皮尔斯模型 在1965年，美国学者肯尼思·鲍尔丁（肯尼思·尤尔特博尔丁）在类似地球的太空飞船（地球的SPASH船舶博尔丁的太空飞船理论）“一文中提出，人们不应该看地球作为一个垃圾场，是一个生态系统中，”循环再造的废物回收废物及循环流（圆形流）的话，对人的生存能力取决于共生的关系，所有的元素和人们对全球生态系统的封闭循环的特点。但没有使用的长期回收经济，但与中央计划经济的中央计划经济。博尔丁在1966年出版的文章“未来的飞船地球经济学（在未来的地球太空船）的经济学“。这些建议未来经济发展的太空船地球”类似的“太空人”经济。地球是一个寂寞的太空船，储备库不会有无限的物质，既不开发，也不污染。人类必须找到自己的位置，在循环的生态系统，物质再生产。博尔丁看作是生态经济学，中国学者认为，循环经济的概念最早的倡导者。 英国环境经济学家大卫·皮尔斯和图奈（皮尔斯，DW＆特纳，RK）1990年第一次使用这个词的循环经济（循环经济）。这两位作者在天然资源与环境经济学“，这本书的第二章的标题是”循环经济（循环经济）。他们正在尝试建立可持续发展的原则基础上，资源的管理规则和物质流模型的建立。任一回路废弃物 - 资源的可用性有着积极的作用，或直接在自然的能力，吸收压力。在后一种情况下，超过自然的废物直接排放到实用程序或资源的可用性产生负面影响的吸收能力。基于这个广泛的概念，包括的吸收能力，皮尔斯和自然资源管理的两个规则：可再生能源的可再生资源的开采速度不是它的速度，较小的排放到环境中的废物流比或等于的吸收能力环境。他们还提出了资源股的特点：可耗竭性资源减少（可持续发展）应该补偿的可再生资源的增加，达到一定的生活水准，我们必须减少消耗的资源或可再生资源股票（提高效率）。 类似的工业代谢，自然循环和工业循环的循环经济模式。这两个循环的繁殖，也就是提供的再生产和消费的物质基础;产生超过直接消费效用（如美的欣赏）的原料。自然循环被吸收的环境消化废物，废物吸收的经济来源承担的经济体制;工业循环有助于??减少自然同化能力的压力，而产生额外的资源。此外，循环也有助于减少对环境的同化能力的压力。但是，工业循环也需要资本投资，并产生额外的压力同化能力。也就是说，二次污染，导致吸收能力的下降。 循环经济的过程中，中国的发展 在中国发展循环经济有一个逐渐清晰的概念内涵，扩大重点进行调整，不仅为国家和性能环境法律，法规和标准，并制定了一系列的优惠政策，约束，鼓励企业开展资源节约和综合利用，推进工业“三废”，“吃干榨尽。可以推断，循环经济将成为实现可持续发展的方式之一。 在我们国家已经做了很多工作，以提高资源的利用效率 >自改革开放以来，国家制定了一系列促进企业的能源，水，土地，材料和资源节约法规，政策，标准和管理措施，加大结构调整和技术改造力度，以节约能源的主要内容，推广先进，适用的技术，流程和设备的发展，资源的利用效率已得到大大改善。统计显示，：在2003年，中国的能源消耗每万元国内生产总值在1980年下降％;每万元GDP用水量相比1980年下降了％;综合利用，工业“三废”的倍，1985年的产值;报废回收的材料总价值的倍，1985年，经济，社会的有机统一和环境效益。 首先，工业废物综合利用率。在重新冶炼渣屑制砖或烧制水泥，废钢回收利用的税收减免等政策激励，在中国的一些企业中，和重用冷却水和其他措施，开展企业资源再生或循环再造。2003年全国工业“三废”综合利用产值达40亿元人民币，工业固体废物综合利用率达到53％，综合利用率约65％ ？粉煤灰，煤矸石综合利用率约56％。 返回。我们的的城市包装材料，如酒精和烟草包装纸箱回收废旧物资回收已经形成了相对供应的废物流零售商，批发商，批发商再集中返回的生产企业重复使用的，有些废料物质的分散回收集中分类，废金属加工成的冶炼厂，旧家具，废纸，塑料，废木材，废家电回收行业，已经形成了网络和规模，2003年，5000多名各类废旧物资回收企业，回收网点16万，超过3000个回收加工企业，从业人员140余人，再生资源回收利用的价值约50十亿人民币，在发展模式调整废料和社会回收网点遍布全国各地。再利用生产和消费的过程中，无论从事机械，电器等产品的生产领域的消费领域我们的维修团队，一些企业开展近年来开始探索和实践，一方面报废汽车发动机废旧机电产品再制造，实现资源的循环利用的包装材料，如玻璃容器，纸箱，周转箱的回收及循环再造。提高资源的利用效率，另一方面，解决供应配件停产的老款车型的产品更新，可谓一举多得。此外，国家鼓励发展的旧货市场，充分利用的跳蚤资源，以满足低收入消费群体的需求。 四，环保产业的快速发展。“末端”不属于循环经济领域的，但循环经济的内容。热利用城市生活垃圾分类，回收和最终处置生活垃圾堆肥处理和垃圾填埋气，废物转化为能源，形成产业链，循环经济的内容。2003 ，40多利用垃圾发电或热利用企业。加快沿海地区形成的中小型企业进入园区，污水集中处理模型的过程中，以市场为导向的工业废水和生活污水处理。 ，不仅是为了减少污水处理的资金，部分企业也成为当地的纳税大户。促进循环经济的努力，加强宣传国家的发展增加了近年。循环经济作为一个新的概念，有一个逐步认识和深化的过程。近年来，国家有关部门，新闻单位要加强对循环经济的概念，这个想法的？宣传，创造一个良好的社会氛围循环经济的发展，同时，绿色服务业（第三产业），环境标志认证体系，绿色学校，绿色社区，绿色政府采购是一些地方推进循环经济方向。 组织试点示范。中国的圆经济试点工作进行了三个层面上。大力推动清洁生产在企业层面，建立生态工业园工业园区，发展循环经济省，市试点，并取得了初步成效。 > 积极推行清洁生产。中国是国际上公认的清洁生产，取得了较好的发展中国家。在1993年，中国利用世界银行开展清洁生产试点项目，在酿造，造纸，化工等行业通过不断改进设计，使用清洁的能源和原料，采用先进的技术和设备，完善的管理和其他措施，以提高资源的利用效率，减少或避免污染物的产生。国家相关部门，重点对一些重大清洁生产技术开发和产业化示范工程，并在全国20多个省（自治区，直辖市），20多个行业，400多家企业开展清洁生产审核工作，建立了20个行业或地方的清洁生产中心，超过10000人参加了清洁生产的不同类型的培训，提高企业污染防治能力。 在集中地区促进生态产业发展。的行业，经济开发区，积极发展生态工业废物原料的上游和下游企业，延长生产链，从上游企业在这些公园生态原则的基础上，组织生产，实现高效区域或企业集团，废物的产生，甚至“零排放”的最低金额之间的资源分配，国家环保总局已批准了14种类型的生态工业园建设的公园在江苏省具有不同的功能，上海的废物饭盒回收产业链，天津开发区基本形成无废物排放园区。这些做法可以总结和推广。 取得了长足的进步，在发展生态农业。自20世纪90年代以来，该部农业部在两组51生态农业示范县，国家批准。经过积极探索农业领域，养殖业，农产品加工业总结出数百从材料的接触角，生态农业模式物质代谢类型的生态农业模式。 ，产业共生型和混合型三大类。 法律，法规和政策，创造体制环境 自改革开放以来，中国政府从法律，法规，政策，标准，发展循环经济的措施，以建立有利于资源节约和环境保护的制度环境约束和激励机制的引入。 首先，法律和法规不断完善。 2003年1月1日实施的“清洁生产促进法”第九条规定：“调整产业结构，发展循环经济，促进企业在资源和废物综合利用领域的合作，更有效地运用，回收资源“环境影响评价法”，“节约能源法”，“可再生能源法”，提出了发展循环经济的要求。 2004年修订的“固体废物污染防治和控制环境法：”国家固体废物污染环境的防治，实行减少固体废物和危险，充分合理利用固体废物和无害化处置固体废物的原则，促进清洁生产和循环经济发展。 “国家还推出了节能和长期规划。废旧家电及电子产品回收利用，清洁生产审计方法，轮廓节水技术”的规定进行了介绍。当地的法律和法规还介绍了2003年左右，陕西，辽宁，江苏等省份和城市，如沉阳，太原还制定了地方清洁生产政策和法规。贵阳市建设循环经济生态城市条例的颁布和实施。这些都依法奠定了基础，促进循环经济发展的。 通过优惠政策鼓励企业发展循环经济。资源综合利用，废旧物资，回收和环保产业，循环经济的重要组成部分，一直是国家鼓励和支持的工作。为了调动企业开展资源综合利用的积极性和主动性，国家发展和实施了一系列优惠政策，鼓励资源综合利用。例如，国家经贸委和国务院其他部门批准的1996年“意见”的进一步发展的资源综合利用（国发[1996] 36号），国家资源的综合利用经济和社会发展的长期战略方针。开发两批当前国家重点鼓励发展的产业，产品和技术目录“，根据国务院第36号，原国家经贸委，财政部，国家税务总局等部门联合下发的利废企业和产品的减免税优惠政策的有关优惠政策。 另外，国家有关部门组织了大量的理论和实践研究。在2004年中央财经领导小组办公室显著研究，“循环经济地位，中国的资源战略和措施，研究建立。由国家发展和改革委员会委托，国务院发展研究中心开展了循环经济政策，思考研究发展循环经济，建设节约型社会“十一五”规划。环境与发展国际合作委员会开展清洁生产和循环经济的专门研究。国家中期??和长期科学和技术发展规划战略研究，生态建设，环境保护和循环经济，科学和技术问题为主题。项目支持科学技术部，国家环保总局开展软科学的循环经济技术支撑体系。循环经济在中国的发展已引起国际社会的高度重视循环经济的优先领域的国际合作项目。例如，世界银行支持全国人大开展的研究循环经济的法律框架，以支持国家环保总局开展循环经济的政策研究，德国支持贵阳市循环经济的实践。所有这些都为中国循环经济的发展奠定了基础。

China's sustained economic growth and weak world economic growth and the continuous devaluation of dollar, particularly the . government in the domestic unemployment rate and rising international trade deficit of the circumstances, the United States some people will be unemployed manufacturing workers in the United States and the reasons for the Sino-US trade deficit Summed up as the RMB exchange rateFirst, the renminbi exchange rate is not the main cause of Sino-US trade deficit1, the EC analysis of Sino-US trade balanceChina and the United States for such a big difference between two main aspects of reasons: (1), the United States statistics will be part of China through Hong Kong re-exports of double counting in China's exports to the United States (2), the . trade data Collection process has many , Sino-US trade deficit is what causes(1), the . Government's high-tech products export control policy, Sino-US trade imbalance is an important reason.(2), . investment in China's balance of trade of multinational companies is another important reason. China to the United States despite the existence of high trade surplus, but a large part of the trade surplus from the . multinational companies in China, according to Chinese statistics show that: China's import and export amount of 56 percent is from foreign-funded enterprises to achieve, China is . multinational companies to reduce production costs and increase profits one of the main channel.(3), the . trade statistics report and the multinational corporations will not return to the United States of the investment income account3, Liaokai . foreign trade deficit . imports from the large number of foreign companies in setting up their own production lines, in other words, the . subsidiary of multinational companies import goods from overseas, the reality of the trade are many companies and the companies, not countries trade with the countries of the economist Julius once the . balance of trade statistics, if coupled with its overseas subsidiaries in the local double-counting, then in 1986 the . trade balance from a deficit of 144 billion . dollars into 57 billion A surplus of . dollars. According to the . Department of Commerce statistics, in 1995 the . subsidiary of multinational companies in sales over 210 million . dollars, with exports of goods and services the same year 794 billion . dollars, almost 3 trillion . dollars, and foreign exports to the . and foreign companies in the . , A subsidiary of the internal sales total of trillion . dollars, the United States today is not the world's largest trade deficit country, but the world on a few large trade surplus with one of the . exports to foreign multinational companies in the United States and abroad for sale on the market, both in 2002 and amounted to 3 trillion . dollars. Over the same period, imports of . and foreign multinational companies in the . market sales, and for both of trillion . dollars, resulting in the United States on the world's total trade surplus of 600 billion . dollars, and this is when the analysis of the . foreign trade deficit Should comprehensively grasp the essence of the , the . trade deficit, the real reason for the(1) in the 1970s, the two oil crises led to two world oil prices rose sharply, from Japan and developing countries with strong economic competitiveness and the strength of the dollar, which makes . goods, services, trade Deficit in 1987 reached a peak of 152 billion . dollars.(2) deterioration of the low . savings rate, the United States must from the international financial market, raising funds for construction, that is, factoring funds to invest heavily in the building.(3) . multinational companies in the United States in the import trade played by the "one of us" role, that is part of the trade deficit is actually "returning goods."China and the United States is a complementary economy, maintain the existing exchange rate system is a win-win situation

这篇文章有几个非常有意思的句子和表达，我贴出来，大家一起赏析一下： 佳句篇：   Sentence 1. He helped popularise the idea that some diseases not previously thought to have a bacterial cause were actually infections, which ruffled many scientific feathers when it was first suggested. 解析： Ruffle弄皱的意思 Ruffle one’s feathers惹怒（想想逆毛流撸猫） The idea that ...用的是同位语从句，不太多，常用搭配是the evidence that，the concept that 等。That后从句解释idea, concept或evidence等。 Which的指代问题。Which指代的不是上文任何一个出现的单词或词组，而是Dr. Cochran的这波操作。Sentence 2. Ashkenazim generally do well in IQ tests, scoring 12-15 points above the mean value of 100, and have contributed disproportionately to the intellectual and cultural life of the West, as the careers of Freud, Einstein and Mahler, pictured above, affirm. disproportionately不成比例地 主干and复合句+非谓语动词scoring+as引导的从句（插入后置定语） 每个部分都不难，集合到一起就对理解产生障碍了。Sentence 3. But in the Middle Ages, success in Christian society tended to be violently aristocratic (warfare and land), rather than peacefully meritocratic (banking and trade). 这个句子不难，为什么拿出来是因为这个violently的用法。简单来讲，这一个单词乍一看是作aristocratic的副词，实则在翻译（以及理解）当中，我们必须单独翻译成一个实意的成分，而且作副词处理。 Aristocratic贵族统治 Meritocratic德治Sentence 4. That small, reproductively isolated groups of people are susceptible to genetic disease is well known. 主语从句，注意 5. Most of the dozen or so disease genes that are common in them belong to one of two types: they are involved either in the storage in nerve cells of special fats called sphingolipids, which form part of the insulating outer sheaths that allow nerve cells to transmit electrical signals, or in DNA repair. 典型长句，如何解析？ Most of the dozen or so  disease genes that are common in them  belong to one of two types: Or so大约 斜体作的是disease genes they are involved either in the storage in nerve cells of special fats called sphingolipids, which form part of the insulating outer sheaths that allow nerve cells to transmit electrical signals, or in DNA repair. either or后面是两个in... 第一个in后面的which form part of the insulating outer sheaths解释的是Sphingolipids that allow nerve cells to transmit electrical signals解释的是sheaths。 也就是说，（非限制性）定语从句后面紧接另一个定语从句。 第二个in后面很简单，但！！！文章最后一段有解释，对于 文章结构 至关重要。Sentence 6&7. Thus, the theory goes, the pressure  to keep the sickle-cell gene in the population because of its malaria-protective effects balances the pressure  to drive it out because of its anaemia-causing effects. It therefore persists without becoming ubiquitous. 两句话放一起。 主干已加黑。很有意思的句子，工整、对仗，而又解释非常清楚。 下一句，persist和ubiquitous用词极其精准，整句话像外科手术般，精准简练。作者还是怕读者一下子没读懂，用简单而又高效的句子总结下。写作手法很老练高超，字字玑珠，像极了宝马M3。Sentence 8. Genes that promote intelligence in an individual when present as a single copy create disease when present as a double copy. 乍一看没什么稀奇，再一看，把一个comparison分别放在了主语和谓语的修饰成分中，可谓老辣。 作何解？ That promote intelligence对genes做了一个限定，指的是genes的其中一种特征，然后用when说明了适用情况。 Create谓语的主语也是genes，但这时候是没有限定的genes。Create disease做的是限定，其实对应的是promote intelligence。后面同样用一个when来说明范围。 简单来讲，genes的含义做了一个缩小和限定，又在create的时候恢复了genes的双重功能含义。 Promote intelligence和create diseases一个对应，尽管成分差别很大。 两个when的对比。 可谓神句。Sentence 9. An Israeli clinic devoted to treating people with Gaucher's has vastly more engineers, scientists, accountants and lawyers on its books than would be expected by chance. Than (what) would be expected by chance. 省略了what。。。你能理解吗？ 还有这个books，这个同语境关联强烈。好的表达： 1. ruffle one’s feather 2. Tremble at the thought 3. Affirm作不及物动词（Ashkenazim generally do well in IQ tests, scoring 12-15 points above the mean value of 100, and have contributed disproportionately to the intellectual and cultural life of the West, as the careers of Freud, Einstein and Mahler, pictured above, affirm. ） 4. aristocratic . meritocratic 5. Exact a price类似用法 exert influence附原文及翻译： Natural genius? 天生我才？ The high intelligence of Ashkenazi Jews may be a result of their persecuted past 德系犹太人的高智商或许是因为曾经遭受迫害的后果 THE idea that some ethnic groups may, on average, be more intelligent than others is one of those hypotheses that dare not speak its name. But Gregory Cochran, a noted scientific iconoclast, is prepared to say it anyway. He is that rare bird, a scientist who works independently of any institution. He helped popularise the idea that some diseases not previously thought to have a bacterial cause were actually infections, which ruffled many scientific feathers when it was first suggested. And more controversially still, he has suggested that homosexuality is caused by an infection. 某些少数民族的平均智商高于其他民族这一说法，是很多不敢公开的假设之一。不过著名的科学狂人Gregory Cochran 决意要做第一个吃螃蟹的人。他很特别，总是独立工作而不属于任何机构。某些曾被诊断并非病菌引起的疾病，其实病源来自传染病。这一观点因他的推动受到了关注。此观点一经提出，就受到了许多科学家的反对。这还不算，更具争议的是，他认为同性恋也是由传染病引起的。 Even he, however, might tremble at the thought of what he is about to do. Together with Jason Hardy and Henry Harpending, of the University of Utah, he is publishing, in a forthcoming edition of the Journal of Biosocial Science, a paper which not only suggests that one group of humanity is more intelligent than the others, but explains the process that has brought this about. The group in question are Ashkenazi Jews. The process is natural selection. 然而就算是Cochran，也为自己接下来要做的事捏了一把汗。他准备同Utah大学的Jason Hardy与Henry Harpending一同，在最新一期的《生物社会科学杂志》发表一篇论文，文中不仅提出了某一少数民族比其他民族更聪明这一观点，还解释了这一结果产生的过程。文中两大主角就是德系犹太人和自然选择。 History before science 不管是否科学，先来看看历史 Ashkenazim generally do well in IQ tests, scoring 12-15 points above the mean value of 100, and have contributed disproportionately to the intellectual and cultural life of the West, as the careers of Freud, Einstein and Mahler, pictured above, affirm. They also suffer more often than most people from a number of nasty genetic diseases, such as Tay-Sachs and breast cancer. These facts, however, have previously been thought unrelated. The former has been put down to social effects, such as a strong tradition of valuing education. The latter was seen as a consequence of genetic isolation. Even now, Ashkenazim tend to marry among themselves. In the past they did so almost exclusively. 德系犹太人不仅在IQ测试上表现不俗，正常人一般在100分左右，而他们大多都能得个112-115分，而且虽然人数不多，但他们在欧洲知识、文化生活中的地位却举足轻重。想想弗洛伊德、爱因斯坦、马勒，我们就会点头称是了。但同时，他们中患有如泰-萨克斯病、乳腺癌这类严重的遗传疾病的比率明显高于其他种族。这些事实，最初被人们认为是毫无联系的。前者被说成是社会原因引起的，如浓烈的价值观教育的传统；后者则被说成是基因隔离的结果，不过即使是现在，德系犹太人还是愿意同本族人结婚，在过去，就更是如此了。 Dr Cochran, however, suspects that the intelligence and the diseases are intimately linked. His argument is that the unusual history of the Ashkenazim has subjected them to unique evolutionary pressures that have resulted in this paradoxical state of affairs. 但Cochran博士对以上两点表示质疑，并认为德系犹太人的天赋异禀与痛病缠身联系密切。他认为正是异常的历史环境强加给了德系犹太人独有的进化压力，才导致了这些看似奇怪的现象。 Ashkenazi history begins with the Jewish rebellion against Roman rule in the first century AD. When this was crushed, Jewish refugees fled in all directions. The descendants of those who fled to Europe became known as Ashkenazim. 德系犹太人的历史源于公元1世纪。犹太人在反对罗马人的统治失败后，犹太难民四散而逃，逃亡欧洲的犹太后裔就是如今的德系犹太人。 In the Middle Ages, European Jews were subjected to legal discrimination, one effect of which was to drive them into money-related professions such as banking and tax farming which were often disdained by, or forbidden to, Christians. This, along with the low level of intermarriage with their gentile neighbours (which modern genetic analysis confirms was the case), is Dr Cochran's starting point. 在中世纪，欧洲的犹太人在法律上地位很不平等，结果之一就是他们不得不从事与金钱相关的职业，如被人看不起或不准基督徒涉足的银行或征税工作，此外，他们只能与邻居中社会地位较低的非犹太人通婚（这种状况通过现代基因学分析得到了证实）。上述就是Cochran 博士论文的起点。 He argues that the professions occupied by European Jews were all ones that put a premium on intelligence. Of course, it is hard to prove that this intelligence premium existed in the Middle Ages, but it is certainly true that it exists in the modern versions of those occupations. Several studies have shown that intelligence, as measured by IQ tests, is highly correlated with income in jobs such as banking. 他认为欧洲犹太人从事的职业都是些需要一定智商的职业，虽不能证明这些职业在中世纪时就是这样了，但在当代它们确实如此。一些研究表明，智力水平（按智力测试的标准来算）与工资水平（如那些从事银行工作的人）联系密切。 What can, however, be shown from the historical records is that European Jews at the top of their professions in the Middle Ages raised more children to adulthood than those at the bottom. Of course, that was true of successful gentiles as well. But in the Middle Ages, success in Christian society tended to be violently aristocratic (warfare and land), rather than peacefully meritocratic (banking and trade). 这些历史记录证明了，那些在欧洲工作地位较高的犹太家庭子女存活率要高于那些地位较低的犹太家庭。情况对于那些其他种族的也是一样的。但在中世纪，基督教社会中所谓的成功多是贵族通过战争与土地强争豪取，而非通过量才而用（如从事银行或贸易工作）和平地获得。 Put these two things together—a correlation of intelligence and success, and a correlation of success and fecundity—and you have circumstances that favour the spread of genes that enhance intelligence. The questions are, do such genes exist, and what are they if they do? Dr Cochran thinks they do exist, and that they are exactly the genes that cause the inherited diseases which afflict Ashkenazi society. 把智力与成功的关联以及成功与生殖力的关系合二为一，你就具备了有利于智商提高的基因传播的条件。问题是这种智商基因确实存在吗？假如它果真存在的话，那究竟是什么呢？科克伦博士认为它们的确存在，而且正是那种引起折磨德系犹太人遗传疾病的基因。 That small, reproductively isolated groups of people are susceptible to genetic disease is well known. Constant mating with even distant relatives reduces genetic diversity, and some disease genes will thus, randomly, become more common. But the very randomness of this process means there should be no discernible pattern about which disease genes increase in frequency. In the case of Ashkenazim, Dr Cochran argues, this is not the case. Most of the dozen or so disease genes that are common in them belong to one of two types: they are involved either in the storage in nerve cells of special fats called sphingolipids, which form part of the insulating outer sheaths that allow nerve cells to transmit electrical signals, or in DNA repair. The former genes cause neurological diseases, such as Tay- Sachs, Gaucher's and Niemann-Pick. The latter cause cancer. 众所周知，越是人口稀少并且生育范围狭小的种族就越易患遗传疾病。总是于同族人通婚，就算不是近亲，也会较少遗传的多样性，同时也会使某些致病基因没有规律地在该种族内部泛滥起来。而这种无规律性意味着人们不知道何类致病基因会被大量传播。但对德系犹太人来说，Cochran 医生指出，情况却并非如此。他们当中最常见的十几种疾病基因基本上可以归结于两类：一类参与神经细胞中鞘脂类特殊脂肪）的储存。鞘脂组成一部分绝缘外层鞘，允许神经细胞发射电子信号。另一类参与DNA 的修复。前者基因会引发神经性疾病，如泰萨二氏病、脑苷脂沉积病和神经鞘磷脂沉积病；而后者会导致癌症。 That does not look random. And what is even less random is that in several cases the genes for particular diseases come in different varieties, each the result of an independent original mutation. This really does suggest the mutated genes are being preserved by natural selection. But it does not answer the question of how evolution can favour genetic diseases. However, in certain circumstances, evolution can. 上述看起来并非毫无规律。而且更趋于规律的表现就是，在一些病例中，特殊疾病的致病基因来自于不同的变体，而每个变体都是独立的原基因变异的结果。这就印证了变异基因是自然选择保留下来的结果，可它却不能回答自然选择为什么会成了遗传疾病的帮凶，但在一些特殊的条件下，进化能够产生这样的结果。 West Africans, and people of West African descent, are susceptible to a disease called sickle-cell anaemia that is virtually unknown elsewhere. The anaemia develops in those whose red blood cells contain a particular type of haemoglobin, the protein that carries oxygen. But the disease occurs only in those who have two copies of the gene for the disease-causing haemoglobin (one copy from each parent). Those who have only one copy have no symptoms. They are, however, protected against malaria, one of the biggest killers in that part of the world. Thus, the theory goes, the pressure to keep the sickle-cell gene in the population because of its malaria-protective effects balances the pressure to drive it out because of its anaemia-causing effects. It therefore persists without becoming ubiquitous. 如西非人以及他们的后代易患一种叫做镰状细胞性贫血的疾病，这种病在西非之外几乎都没人听说过。贫血症发于那些红血球中含有一种特殊的血红蛋白，其蛋白质中含有氧气的人。但这种镰状细胞性贫血症只会发生在同时有两组这种致病的血红蛋白（父母都有这种血红蛋白）的人身上。而那些只有一组的人不但不会患这种贫血症，也不会患疟疾，该病被称为非洲的头号杀手。因此，我们可以这样说，抵御疟疾的特性使得镰状细胞在得以人体中存活下来，同时这种细胞导致贫血症的特性也会被人体排斥，只有在为保持这两种状态而产生的压力达到平衡时，才不会有任何一个特性占据上风。 Dr Cochran argues that something similar happened to the Ashkenazim. Genes that promote intelligence in an individual when present as a single copy create disease when present as a double copy. His thesis is not as strong as the sickle-cell/malaria theory, because he has not proved that any of his disease genes do actually affect intelligence. But the area of operation of some of them suggests that they might. Cochran博士认为，德系犹太人也面临着同样的情况，他们的某些基因如果以单组出现就可以提高智力，一旦以双组出现就会引起疾病。显然，该理论并不如他的镰状细胞/疟疾理论那样具有说服力，因为他尚未证明任何一种致病基因确实能够影响智力，但是某些基因的活动区域显示它们或许真能影响智力。 The sphingolipid-storage diseases, Tay-Sachs, Gaucher's and Niemann-Pick, all involve extra growth and branching of the protuberances that connect nerve cells together. Too much of this (as caused in those with double copies) is clearly pathological. But it may be that those with single copies experience a more limited, but still enhanced, protuberance growth. That would yield better linkage between brain cells, and might thus lead to increased intelligence. Indeed, in the case of Gaucher's disease, the only one of the three in which people routinely live to adulthood, there is evidence that those with full symptoms are more intelligent than the average. An Israeli clinic devoted to treating people with Gaucher's has vastly more engineers, scientists, accountants and lawyers on its books than would be expected by chance. 鞘脂储存类疾病，如泰萨二氏病、脑苷脂沉积病和神经鞘磷脂沉积病，都涉及到连接神经细胞的凸起的多余生长和分叉。显然，这种生长和分叉太多的话就会引起疾病。但是，也有可能，仅有单份致病基因的人会出现比较有限的、但仍然加强了的凸起生长。这将有助于加强脑细胞之间的连接，或许因此导致智力提高。实际上，在脑苷脂沉积病的例子中，在三分之一能够活到成年的患者中，确实有证据表明完全发病的人拥有高于平均值的智商。根据一家专门治疗脑苷脂沉积病的以色列诊所的医疗记录，患者中的工程师、科学家、会计和律师的比例多于常人。 Why a failure of the DNA-repair system should boost intelligence is unclear—and is, perhaps, the weakest part of the thesis, although evidence is emerging that one of the genes in question is involved in regulating the early growth of the brain. But the thesis also has a strong point: it makes a clear and testable prediction. This is that people with a single copy of the gene for Tay-Sachs, or that for Gaucher's, or that for Niemann-Pick should be more intelligent than average. Dr Cochran and his colleagues predict they will be so by about five IQ points. If that turns out to be the case, it will strengthen the idea that, albeit unwillingly, Ashkenazi Jews have been part of an accidental experiment in eugenics. It has brought them some advantages. But, like the deliberate eugenics experiments of the 20th century, it has also exacted a terrible price. 为什么基因修复系统失灵会提高智力，现在还不清楚原因何在。虽然，陆续有证据表明产生问题的基因之一参与了调节大脑的早期发育，但是这仍是该论题最薄弱的环节。不过，该理论也有令人信服的地方：它对于拥有单份泰萨二氏病或脑苷脂沉积病或神经鞘磷脂沉积病基因的人会比普通人更聪明做出了明确而可检验的预测。Cochran 博士和他的同事认为，这些人的智商因此会比平均水平高出5 个点。尽管有人不愿接受，假如确实如此的话，它将有力地证明，德系犹太人在不经意间经历了优生实验，而这为他们带来了智商上的优势。但是，如同发生在20 世纪的人为的优生实验一样，它同样让他们付出了可怕的代价。

翻译如下：China's sustained economic growth and weak world economic growth and the continuous devaluation of dollar, particularly the . government in the domestic unemployment rate and rising international trade deficit of the circumstances, the United States some people will be unemployed manufacturing workers in the United States and the reasons for the Sino-US trade deficit Summed up as the RMB exchange , the renminbi exchange rate is not the main cause of a Sino-US trade deficit, the EC analysis of Sino-US trade balance statistics difference between the two countries so large there are two main aspects of reasons: (1), the United States statistics will be part of China's re-exports through Hong Kong Double-counting of trade in China's exports to the United States (2), the . trade data collection process has many , Sino-US trade deficit is what causes (1), the . Government's high-tech products export control policy, Sino-US trade imbalance is an important reason. (2), . investment in China's balance of trade of multinational companies is another important reason. China to the United States despite the existence of high trade surplus, but a large part of the trade surplus from the . multinational companies in China, according to Chinese statistics show that: China's import and export amount of 56 percent is from foreign-funded enterprises to achieve, China is . multinational companies to reduce production costs and increase profits one of the main channel.(3), the . trade statistics report and the multinational corporations will not return to the United States of the investment income , Liaokai . foreign trade deficit veil of the United States imports a large number of companies from abroad set up their own production lines, in other words, the . subsidiary of multinational companies import goods from overseas, the reality of the trade are many companies and the companies, not countries with national The document economist Julius once the . balance of trade statistics, if coupled with its overseas subsidiaries in the local double-counting, then in 1986 the . trade balance from a deficit of 144 billion . dollars into 57 billion A surplus of . dollars. According to the . Department of Commerce statistics, in 1995 the . subsidiary of multinational companies in sales over 210 million . dollars, with exports of goods and services the same year 794 billion . dollars, almost 3 trillion . dollars, and foreign exports to the . and foreign companies in the . , A subsidiary of the internal sales total of trillion . dollars, the United States today is not the world's largest trade deficit country, but the world on a few large trade surplus with one of the . exports to foreign multinational companies in the United States and abroad for sale on the market, both in 2002 and amounted to 3 trillion . dollars. Over the same period, imports of . and foreign multinational companies in the . market sales, and for both of trillion . dollars, resulting in the United States on the world's total trade surplus of 600 billion . dollars, and this is when the analysis of the . foreign trade deficit Should comprehensively grasp the essence of the , the . trade deficit, the real reason (1) in the 1970s, the two oil crises led to two world oil prices rose sharply, from Japan and developing countries with strong economic competitiveness and the strength of the dollar exchange rate, these Are making . goods, services trade deficit in 1987 reached a peak of 152 billion . dollars.(2) deterioration of the low . savings rate, the United States must from the international financial market, raising funds for construction, that is, factoring funds to invest heavily in the building. (3) . multinational companies in the United States in the import trade played by the "one of us" role, that is part of the trade deficit is actually "returning goods." China and the United States is a complementary economy, maintain the existing exchange rate system is a win-win situation.

经济学毕业论文英文文献及翻译2

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Health careA new prescription for the poor为贫穷者新开的处方America is developing a two-tier health system, one for those with private insurance, the other for the less well-off美国正在发展一个双重的健康系统，一重是为那些有个人保险的人群，而另一重则是为那些不那么富裕的人群Oct 8th 2011 | NEW YORK | from the print edition“IT’S time for Dancing with the Stars!”, a woman announces enthusiastically. At this New York health centre, wedged between housing projects to the east and Chinatown to the west, “dancing with the stars” means dancing with a physical therapist. An old man stands up with a nurse and begins a determined samba.“是时候和明星一起跳舞了！”一位女士满怀热情地宣告。在这个坐落于房屋工程的西面，唐人街东面的纽约健康中心，“和明星起舞”的意思是和一位物理治疗师跳舞。一位老者和一个护士站起来，开始跳事先确定好的桑巴舞。Comprehensive Care Management (CCM), which runs this centre, tries to keep old people active. To do so, explains Joseph Healy, the chief operating officer, is in the company’s best interest. The government pays CCM a capped rate for the care of its members. If someone gets sick, his health costs rise and the company’s margin shrinks. Mr Healy argues that the system is the best way to provide good care at a low cost. Increasingly others seem to agree.经营这个中心的综合护理管理部门（CCM）努力保持老人们的活力。约瑟夫-海莉，首席运营官解释说，这样做符合公司的最佳利益。政府给这个部门一个封顶的津贴来让他们照顾这些人。如果有人生病了，他的健康成本就会上升，公司的利润就会萎缩。海莉先生确定说这个系统能够在一个低成本上提供最佳的护理。其他人也逐渐同意这个观点。Medicaid, America’s health programme for the poor, is in the process of being transformed. Over the next three years, New York will move its entire Medicaid population into “managed care”, paying companies a set rate to tend to the poor, rather than paying a fee for each service. New York is not alone. States from California to Mississippi are expanding managed care. It is the culmination of a steady shift in the way most poor Americans receive their health-care treatment.公共医疗补助，即美国的穷人健康计划，正在被改造的过程中。在接下来的 三年内，纽约将把整个接受穷人健康计划的人群纳入“管理关怀”之中，付给公司们一个事先定好的费用来照顾那些穷人，而不是按照项目来付费。纽约不是唯一这样做的州。加州，密西西比州正在拓展管理关怀计划。这代表一种正在进行中的稳步转变，即大部分贫穷美国人接受健康关怀方式的转变。Medicaid is America’s single biggest health programme. This year roughly one in five Americans will be covered by Medicaid for a month or more. It gobbles more federal and local money than any state programme, other than education. Costs will rise even more when Barack Obama’s health-care reform expands the programme by easing eligibility rules in 2014. Congress’s “supercommittee” is already considering cuts. However, there are more immediate pressures behind the present drive for change.公共医疗补助是美国最大的单一健康计划。今年，五个美国人中的一个就会被纳入该计划一个月或更长时间。除了教育之外，它比其他任何州的财政计划耗去更多联邦和地方的经费。当2014年奥巴马的健康保险改革放宽适用人群而使整个计划更加庞大的时候，成本将会进一步上升。众议院的“超级委员会”已经在考虑削减经费。然而，选择这种变化，将会有更多即刻的压力存在。Enrolment in Medicaid jumped during the downturn, from in December 2007 to in June 2010. Mr Obama’s stimulus bill helped to pay for some of this, but that money has dried up. Faced with gaping deficits, some desperate governors slashed payments to hospitals and doctors, or refused to pay for trips to the dentist or oculist. But much the most important result has been structural: the expansion of managed care.公共医疗补助计划的参与人数在经济滑坡期间从2007年12月的 4270万人跳到了2010年6月的5030万人。奥巴马先生的经济刺激经费能够帮助付掉其中的一部分，但是钱已经被用光。面对资金短缺，一些绝望的州长砍掉了给医院和医生的补助，或是拒绝支付牙医和眼科医生的旅行费用。但是，更多地，最重要的结果是结构上的：管理关怀的拓展。States have dabbled in managed care for decades. The trend accelerated in the 1990s, with the share of Medicaid patients under this form of care reaching 72% by 2009. Now, however, there is a strong push for the remainder. States that did not have managed care, such as Louisiana, are introducing it. Other states are extending it to people previously deemed off limits: California and New York, for example, are moving the elderly and disabled into that system of care. Texas is targeting more than 400,000 Medicaid beneficiaries in the Rio Grande Valley. Local politicians had resisted the move, nervous that care might deteriorate. But the yawning deficit meant that they were overruled.各个州涉足管理关怀已经有几十年的历史了。这个趋势在90年代得到加速发展，在2009年前使用这种护理方式的公共医疗补助病人占到了72%。现在，对于剩下的人，这也是很强的推动力。像路易斯安那州这样没有管理关怀的州正在引进管理关怀。其他州也把这个拓展到原先被认为不适用的人群：举例说像加州和纽约州，正在把老人和残障人士纳入这个系统中，德州的目标是在格兰德河谷超过400000公共医疗补助收益人群。地方政治家反对这个举动，他们担心这个护理系统将会变质。但是巨大的赤字意味着他们的观点注定要被批驳。The result is a country with two distinct tiers of health care. Most Americans with private insurance are still horrified by thoughts of health-management organisations and prefer to pay fees for each medical service. For the poor, managed care is becoming the norm.结果就是一个国家有两套截然不同的健康保险系统。大多数有个人保险的美国人仍旧害怕那些健康管理组织的想法而宁愿为单独的医疗服务付费。对于穷人来说，管理关怀已经成为一种常规。Advocates of managed care have high expectations. First, they hope that it will make costs more predictable. Second, they believe that the change will improve patients’ health. In managed care, a patient has a network of doctors and specialists. If the programme works properly, doctors can monitor all aspects of care, in contrast to the fragmented fee-for-service system. The contracts that states have with firms can set standards for quality. Texas, for instance, will cut 5% from a company’s payment if it does not meet what is required.管理关怀的鼓吹者有着很高的期待。首先，他们希望这能让成本变得可以预测，其次，他们相信，这个改变可以改善病人的健康。在管理关怀中，一个病人有一个由医生和专家组成的网络。如果这个计划运行良好，医生可以监测关怀的各个方面，相对于分离的的按服务付钱的系统来说。州政府和公司的合同可以为质量定下标准。德州，举例说，将会在付款中扣除5%如果公司没有达到要求的标准。The next step is to integrate care for those eligible for both Medicaid and Medicare, the federal programme for the old. These “duals” account for almost 40% of Medicaid’s costs and just 15% of its population. “If managed care can really deliver better care than fee-for-service”, says Diane Rowland, chair of the commission that advises Congress on Medicaid, “this is the population that could prove it.”下一步是整合那些同时符合公共医疗补助和长者医疗补助计划（联邦老人医疗补助）的人群。这些“双符合”人群占据了将近40%的公共医疗补助成本和仅仅15%的人口数量。“如果管理关怀能真正比按项目付费带来更好的服务”，戴安-罗兰德，委员会（指导国会在公共医疗补助政策上进行决策）主任说：“这是一群能证明管理关怀可行的人。”But some, such as Norma Vescovo, are sceptical. As the head of the non-profit Independent Living Centre of Southern California (ILCSC), Ms Vescovo serves Medicaid patients with severe health problems. Over the years she has often sued California on policies that she thinks will hurt her vulnerable clients. On October 3rd her case moved to the Supreme Court.但是一些人，例如像诺玛-凡斯科夫就对此表示怀疑。作为非盈利的南加州独立生活中心主任，凡斯科夫女士服务于那些有严重健康问题的接受公共医疗补助的病人。在这些年间，她经常控告加州政府在一些政策上会伤害她的一些脆弱的客户。在10月3日，她的案子被移到了上诉法院。The outcome of Douglas v Independent Living Centre will have profound implications for the future of Medicaid. Ms Vescovo’s suit concerns cuts to hospitals and doctors. But the case will also guide the course of managed care. If ILCSC and its co-plaintiffs win, private groups will continue to be able to challenge states on policies they think violate federal Medicaid law. Ms Vescovo, who argues that California’s payment cuts would eviscerate her clients’ access to services, worries that under managed care the disabled might not be able to see the specialists they need.道格拉斯 v 独立生活中心的结果将会对公共医疗补助有深远的意义。凡斯科夫女士的诉讼影响到医院和医生的津贴削减。但是这个案子将会引领管理关怀的进程。如果中心和其他原告胜诉，私人团体将会继续在那些他们认为违反联邦法律的政策上挑战州政府。凡斯科夫女士认为说加州的支付削减计划会让她的客户失去得到服务的机会，她还担心，在管理关怀之下，那些残障人士可能不能见到那些他们需要的专家。The question is how to supervise the experiments with managed care that are being carried out in various states. To date, Medicaid beneficiaries have been able to challenge the states in court. However, if the Supreme Court rules against ILCSC, that avenue will be closed. The Centres for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) technically can intervene if states do not provide proper access to care. In reality, CMS has few tools to do so.问题是怎么监管在不同州试运行的管理关怀。到目前为止，公共医疗补助受益者已经能够在法庭中挑战政府。然而，如果上诉法庭结果不利于中心，那么这条路将会被关闭。如果州政府没有提供合适的关怀的话，公共医疗补助和长者医疗关怀中心理论上是能对此进行干涉，但事实上，他们没有太多办法。“I’m a big fan of managed care”, says Sara Rosenbaum, a professor at George Washington University, “but this transformation may happen with almost no federal oversight.” Medicaid beneficiaries are vulnerable, in worse health than Americans as a whole. Companies may struggle to cut costs and provide good care as well. If states do not draft their contracts properly, or fail to be vigilant in monitoring patients’ health, their experiment in managed care could be a disaster. On the other hand, if states are careful they could provide an answer to the question that has vexed America for years: how to provide good, cheap health care.“我是管理关怀的拥护者”，萨拉-罗森博姆，一位乔治华盛顿大学教授说，“但是这种转变可能在没有联邦监管的情况下发生。”公共医疗补助的受益者和你脆弱，健康程度整体上比一般美国人要差。公司可能在削减成本的同时挣扎着同样提供良好的服务。如果州政府们不好好起草他们的合同，或没有警觉地监控病人的健康的话，他们在管理关怀上的实验可能会是一场灾难。另一方面，如果州政府们认真的话，他们能为那个困扰美国人多年的问题提供答案，即怎么提供优质的便宜的健康关怀。

翻译如下：China's sustained economic growth and weak world economic growth and the continuous devaluation of dollar, particularly the . government in the domestic unemployment rate and rising international trade deficit of the circumstances, the United States some people will be unemployed manufacturing workers in the United States and the reasons for the Sino-US trade deficit Summed up as the RMB exchange , the renminbi exchange rate is not the main cause of a Sino-US trade deficit, the EC analysis of Sino-US trade balance statistics difference between the two countries so large there are two main aspects of reasons: (1), the United States statistics will be part of China's re-exports through Hong Kong Double-counting of trade in China's exports to the United States (2), the . trade data collection process has many , Sino-US trade deficit is what causes (1), the . Government's high-tech products export control policy, Sino-US trade imbalance is an important reason. (2), . investment in China's balance of trade of multinational companies is another important reason. China to the United States despite the existence of high trade surplus, but a large part of the trade surplus from the . multinational companies in China, according to Chinese statistics show that: China's import and export amount of 56 percent is from foreign-funded enterprises to achieve, China is . multinational companies to reduce production costs and increase profits one of the main channel.(3), the . trade statistics report and the multinational corporations will not return to the United States of the investment income , Liaokai . foreign trade deficit veil of the United States imports a large number of companies from abroad set up their own production lines, in other words, the . subsidiary of multinational companies import goods from overseas, the reality of the trade are many companies and the companies, not countries with national The document economist Julius once the . balance of trade statistics, if coupled with its overseas subsidiaries in the local double-counting, then in 1986 the . trade balance from a deficit of 144 billion . dollars into 57 billion A surplus of . dollars. According to the . Department of Commerce statistics, in 1995 the . subsidiary of multinational companies in sales over 210 million . dollars, with exports of goods and services the same year 794 billion . dollars, almost 3 trillion . dollars, and foreign exports to the . and foreign companies in the . , A subsidiary of the internal sales total of trillion . dollars, the United States today is not the world's largest trade deficit country, but the world on a few large trade surplus with one of the . exports to foreign multinational companies in the United States and abroad for sale on the market, both in 2002 and amounted to 3 trillion . dollars. Over the same period, imports of . and foreign multinational companies in the . market sales, and for both of trillion . dollars, resulting in the United States on the world's total trade surplus of 600 billion . dollars, and this is when the analysis of the . foreign trade deficit Should comprehensively grasp the essence of the , the . trade deficit, the real reason (1) in the 1970s, the two oil crises led to two world oil prices rose sharply, from Japan and developing countries with strong economic competitiveness and the strength of the dollar exchange rate, these Are making . goods, services trade deficit in 1987 reached a peak of 152 billion . dollars.(2) deterioration of the low . savings rate, the United States must from the international financial market, raising funds for construction, that is, factoring funds to invest heavily in the building. (3) . multinational companies in the United States in the import trade played by the "one of us" role, that is part of the trade deficit is actually "returning goods." China and the United States is a complementary economy, maintain the existing exchange rate system is a win-win situation.

工程经济学论文文献翻译

Traditional Construction ProceduresAs mentioned before, construction under the traditional construction procedure is performed by contractors. While they would like to satisfy the owner and the building designers, contractors have the main objective of making a profit. Hence, their initial task is to prepare a bid price based on an accurate estimate of construction costs. This requires development of a concept for performance of the work and a construction time schedule. After a contract has been awarded, contractors must furnish and pay for all materials, equipment, power, labor, and supervision required for construction. The owner compensates the contractors for construction costs and general contractor assumes overall responsibility for construction of a building. The contractor engages subcontractors who take responsibility for the work of the various trades required for construction. For example, a plumbing contractor installs the plumbing, an electrical contractor installs the electrical system, and an elevator contractor installs elevators. Their contracts are with the general contractor, and they are paid by the general , in addition to a general contractor, the owner contracts separately with specialty contractors, such as electrical and mechanical contractors, who perform a substantial amount of the work require for a building. Such contractors are called prime contractors. Their work is scheduled and coordinated by the general contractor, but they are paid directly by the also, the owner may use the design-build method and award a contract to an organization for both the design and construction of a building. Such organizations are called design-build contractors. One variation of this type of contract is employed by developers of groups of one-family homes or low-rise apartment buildings. The homebuilder designs and constructs the dwellings, but the design is substantially completed before owners purchase the of the construction procedure often is difficult. Consequently, some owners seek assistance from an expert, called a professional construction manager, with extensive construction experience, who receives a fee. The construction manager negotiates with general contractors and helps select one to construct the building. Managers usually also supervise selection of subcontractors. During construction, they help control costs, expedite equipment and material deliveries, and keep the work on schedule. In some cases, instead, the owner may prefer o engage a construction program manager, to assist in administrating both design and contractors employ labor that may or may not be unionized. Unionized craftspeople are members of unions that are organized by construction trades, such as carpenter, plumber, and electrician unions, Union members will perform only the work assigned to their construction, all work should be inspected. For this purpose, the owner, often through the architect and consultants, engages inspectors. The field inspectors may be placed under the control of an owner’s representative, who may be titled clerk of the works, architect’s superintendent, engineer’s superintendent, or resident engineer. The inspectors have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets the requirements of the contract documents and is performed under safe conditions. Such inspections may be made at frequent addition, inspections also are made by representatives of one or more governmental agencies. They have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets legal requirements and have little or no concern with detailed conformance with the contract documents. Such legal inspections are made periodically or at the end of certain stages of construction. One agency that will make frequent inspections is the local or state building department, whichever has jurisdiction. The purpose of these inspections is to ensure conformance with the local or state building is a description of the basic traditional construction procedure for a multistory the award of a construction contract to a general contractor, the owner may ask the contractor to start a portion of the work before signing of the contract by giving the contractor a letter of intent or after signing of the contract by issuing a written notice to proceed. The contractor then obtains construction permits, as required, form governmental agencies, such as the local building, water, sewer, and highway general contractor plans and schedules construction operations in detail and mobilizes equipment and personnel for the project. Subcontractors are notified of the contract award and issued letters of intent or awarded subcontracts, then are given, at appropriate times, notices to construction starts, the general contractor orders a survey to be made of adjacent structures and terrain, both for the record and to become knowledgeable of local conditions. A survey is then made to lay out offices for the contractor are erected on or near the site. If desirable for safety reasons to protect passersby, the required to be removed from the site are demolished and the debris is carted , the site is prepared to receive the building. This work may involve grading the top surface to bring it to the proper elevations, excavating to required depths for basement and foundations, and shifting of utility piping. For deep excavations, earth sides are braced and the bottom is construction starts with the placement of foundations, on which the building rests. This is followed by the erection of load-bearing walls and structural framing. Depending on the height of the building, ladders, stairs, or elevators may be installed to enable construction personnel to travel from floor to floor eventually to the roof. Also, hoists may be installed to lift materials to upper levels. If needed, temporary flooring may be placed for use of the building rises, pipes, ducts, and electric conduit and wiring are installed. Then, permanent floors, exterior walls, and windows are constructed. At the appropriate time, permanent elevators are installed. If required, fireproofing is placed for steel framing. Next, fixed partitions are built and the roof and its covering are put is place,Finishing operations follow. There include installation of the following: ceilings; tile; wallboard; wall paneling; plumbing fixtures; heating furnaces; air-conditioning equipment; heating and cooling devices for rooms; escalators; floor coverings; window glass; movable partitions; doors; finishing hardware; electrical equipment and apparatus, including lighting fixtures, switches, transformers, and controls; and other items called for in the drawings and specifications. Field offices, fences, bridges, and other temporary construction must be removed from the site. Utilities, such as gas, electricity, and water, are hooked up to the building. The sit is landscaped and paved. Finally, the building interior is painted and owner’s representatives then give the building a final inspection. If they find that the structure conforms with the contract documents, the owner accepts the project and gives the general contractor final payment on issuance by the building department of a certificate of occupancy, which indicates that the completed building meets building-code requirements.传统的施工程序众所周知，在传统的施工程序中进行施工的承包商。尽管他们想满足业主和建筑设计师的要求，但是最终还是以赚取利润为主要目标的。因此，他们最初的任务是对编写投标价格的建筑成本进行准确的估计。这就需要进行前期调查的工作并且做出施工时间表。等合约批出后，施工方必须提供所有材料并支付其费用，设备，电力，劳动力。业主此时需要进行必要的监督。一个总承包商承担一个建筑整体的责任。从事分包的承建商则需承担建造工程所需的各个工作。例如，管道承包商安装水管，电业承办商安装电气系统，电梯则由电梯承包商安装。他们与总承包商签订合同，费用由总承包商支付。有时候，除了一个总承包商，还有各种专业承包商，如电气和机械承包商，执行工作时需要与业主签订合同。这种承包商被称为间接承包商。他们的工作，由总承包商协调，但它们都是由业主直接联系。还有些时候，业主可以使用设计建造方法同时兼有设计和建筑施工单位的职能。这些单位被称为设计建造承包商。这方面的一个类型的合同聘用的变化是由一户住宅或低层住宅建筑群的开发。在房屋建筑设计和建造的住房，但设计之前需要由购买房屋的业主完成。施工过程管理往往是困难的。因此，一些业主会去寻求专家的协助，这些专家被称为专业施工经理，他们具有丰富的施工经验。施工经理与总承包商进行谈判，并选择其中一个项目。施工经理通常还监督分包商。在施工期间，它们有助于控制成本，加快运送设备和材料，并保持工作的进度。在依法行政，协助设计和建设的情况下，业主可以选择从事建筑项目经理。建筑承包商雇用的劳动力，一般有大工和小工。大工再建筑工程中从事技术活，如木工，管道工，工会成员和电工工会，小工则执行了分配给他们的工作。在施工期间，一切工作都要验收。因此，业主通过建筑师和监理经常进行督查。可能是名为工程员，建筑师或驻地工程师。作为业主的代表实地视察。核查人员必须确保工程符合合同文件的要求，并在安全的条件下进行的责任。这种检查可作出重复。此外，验收还是需要一个或多个政府机构的代表。他们必须确保工程符合法律要求，并负责检查与合同文件是否一致。这种视察一般定期或在某些阶段施工结束以后进行。地方或国家建设部门具有管辖权。这些检查的目的是确保符合当地或国家的建筑规范。以下是传统多层建筑施工的基本程序。建造开始后合同授予开发商，业主可要求开发商开始施工之前签约给或之后签约发出书面通知的同时另一部分工作继续进行。紧接着施工方根据需要获取建筑许可证，例如当地的建设，供水，污水处理，政府机构和公路部门。总承包商的计划和进度详细施工作业以及动员项目设备和人员。分包商得到通知后，做出签订合同的意向或授予分包合同书，然后给出在适当的时候进行通知。在施工前启动，总承包商要进行的一项调查就是邻近结构和地形，这些都要记录在案，并要熟悉当地情况。这项调查结束以后，随即进行布局建设。承建商的现场办事处都建在施工现场或附近。为了安全起见，必须从脚手架上移除的东西，产生的碎片都要运走。下一步，该网架是为建设工程准备的。这项工作为地下室开挖和基础开挖的深度，以及公用事业管道转移找到正确的标高。深挖掘，土方支撑，底部排出。建筑开始于基础上，然后是承重墙和结构框架的施工。梯子，楼梯，或电梯的安装，可让施工人员往返于各个楼层。此外，可安装卷扬机来运送材料。由于建筑高度的上升，管道，电力管道和线路安装以及永久地板，外墙，窗户和构造的影响。在适当的时候，永久的电梯安装。再需要的情况下可以安装防火卷帘。其次，屋顶等地方也需要安装。精加工工序安装有包括以下内容：天花板，瓷砖，墙板，墙壁镶板，水管装置，加热炉，空气调节设备，加热和冷却室装置;自动扶梯;地板，窗户玻璃;活动板，门;电气设备和仪器，包括照明灯具，开关，变压器，控制器，遵照项目的图纸和规格。外地办事处，围栏，桥梁和其他临时建筑，公共设备，如天然气，电力管道，水管，都连接到建筑上。最后，是建筑物内部的打扫和清洗。业主的代表，会给建设工程作最后检查。如果他们满意并认为符合合同文件，那么业主接受该项目，并交给总承包商的一个占用证书，这表明，总承包商已完成建设，建设部门再根据建筑规范的要求发放最后付款。

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...整个上午...我偶然看到这个帖子就进来了...整个上午我都在帮你翻译这篇英文...真辛苦,生词多,句法也不容易,我不停的检查语法和措辞..挣点分太难了..你这文章摘选的是Financing SMEs and Entrepreneurs,我以前看过所以有些印象,写得比较深刻.所以我愿意帮你翻译,有些地方我不是全部按照原文翻译的,毕竟语言习惯不同,改动了一些地方更好的符合汉语表达.最后希望你答辩顺利通过!当中小型企业试图融资时会遇到很多困难，这是由于不完善的金融产品与服务，法律体制的僵化和漏洞以及银行和中小型企业双方信息的匮乏所致。银行可能不会对某些类型的企业提供资金，尤其是那些通常缺乏足够抵押品的正在创业的公司和年轻的公司，虽然有些企业的资金回报很高但是同时存在很高的投资风险，也不会得到银行的青睐。 中小型企业由其本身性质显示出他们的经营状况对于较大规模的公司来说具有更大的波动性，他们的增长模式和收入也很不稳定。并且他们在市场中的存活率也低于较大规模的公司，一位分析师指出，比大公司少20名雇员的制造企业往往比大公司更容易在某一年中失利。所以，对于较大规模的公司或者是成立已久的公司，中小型企业在尝试融资时有非常明显的劣势。 潜在的债权人和投资者也很难从公司的所有者了解和辨别公司的经营状况。企业主可以把自己的房子再抵押来作为公司的发展资金。举个例子，有两辆车都在私人车道上，但是这能表明这一辆或者两辆都是公司的资产吗？如果物主死了，谁能接管他的生意？抑或他的生意也和他一起消失了？ 中小型企业也许会有一些股东，但是不像大公司的股东一样，他们经常是企业主的朋友和家人。如果他们中有人决定拿自己的资金到别处投资将会发生什么？其他股东会在投资上做得非常好，还是他们在自己的圈子里寻找一个新的投资者，还是去银行要更多的钱呢？这些情况对于与成立已久的大公司打交道的银行，是一个完全不同的经济现象，所以整个资产风险评估相应的也要做出改变。银行和其他传统的信贷来源认为中小型企业代表了比大公司更高的经营风险，并通过收取更高利率的方式获取回报。这使得中小型企业比大公司更难以向金融机构或金融中介机构筹集资金，信用成本高昂，导致中小型企业的融资效率很低，很多中小型企业借不到款。如果企业主们无法通过常规系统获得经济支持，他们很难开展业务或者损失一项即将到手的业务，这是对整个经济的潜在损失。更加恶劣的是，他们可能会弃置全部的常规融资渠道，非常规经营，逃避税收和规则，而这些情况对经济增长和就业率的提高又造成了极坏的影响。

土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直译是民用工程，它是建造各种工程的统称。它既指建设的对象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程设施，也指应用的材料设备和进行的勘测，设计施工，保养，维修等专业技术。土木工程随着人类社会的进步而发展，至今已经演变成为大型综合性的学科，它已经出许多分支，如：建筑工程，铁路工程，道路工程，桥梁工程，特种工程结构，给水排水工程，港口工程，水利工程，环境工程等学科。土木工程共有六个专业：建筑学，城市规划，土木工程，建筑环境与设备工程，给水排水工程和道路桥梁工程。土木工程作为一个重要的基础学科，有其重要的属性：综合性，社会性，实践性，统一性。土木工程为国民经济的发展和人民生活的改善提供了重要的物质技术基础，对众多产业的振兴发挥了促进作用，工程建设是形成固定资产的基本生产过程，因此，建筑业和房地产成为许多国家和地区的经济支柱之一。.古代的土木工程有很长的时间跨度，大致从公元前500年新石器时代出现原始的土木工程活动到16世纪末意大利的文艺复兴，导致土木工程走上迅速发展的道路为止，前后经历了两千多年。在这段时间内，由于科学理论发展及其缓慢，土木工程也没有突破习惯的发展。从17世纪中页开始到20 世纪40年代第二次世界大战结束为止的300年间，国外的建筑取得了长足的进步。土木工程进入了定量分析阶段。一些理论的发展，新材料的出现，新工具的发明，都使土木工程科学日渐完善和成熟。到了近代，二战结束之后，许多国家经济起飞，现代科学日益进步，从而为进一步发展提供了强大的动力和物质基础。人们生活水平的不断提高，必然要求越来越舒适的居住环境，在这种情况下，建筑的发展直接推动了土木工程的发展。总的来说土木工程是一门古老的学科，它已经取得了巨大的成就，未来的土木工程将在人们的生活中占据更重要的地位。地球环境的日益恶化，人口的不断增加，人们为了争取生存，为了争取更舒适的生存环境，必将更加重视土木工程。在不久的将来，一些重大项目将会陆续兴建，插入云霄的摩天大楼，横跨大样的桥梁，更加方便的交通将不是梦想。科技的发展，以及地球不断恶化的环境必将促使土木工程向太空和海洋发展，为人类提供更广阔的生存空间。近年来，工程材料主要是钢筋，混凝土，木材和砖材，在未来，传统材料将得到改观，一些全新的更加适合建筑的材料将问世，尤其是化学合成材料将推动建筑走向更高点。同时，设计方法的精确化，设计工作的自动化，信息和智能话技术的全面引入，将会是人们有一个更加舒适的居住环境。一句话，理论的发展，新材料的出现，计算机的应用，高新技术的引入等都将使土木工程有一个新的飞跃.English is the Civil Engineering Civil Engineering, civil engineering is literally, it is the construction of the project collectively. It means building objects that the construction on the ground, underground, water works facilities, equipment and materials to use in surveying, design construction, maintenance, repair and other professional skills. Civil Engineering with the progress of the human society, has been transformed into large integrated disciplines, it has a number of branches, such as : construction, rail projects, road projects, bridge projects, special project structure, water drainage works, the port project, water, environmental engineering disciplines. A total of six professional Civil Engineering : architecture, urban planning, civil engineering, construction and environmental engineering equipment, water drainage works and road bridge Engineering as an important foundation subjects, its important attribute : an integrated, social, practicality, uniformity. Civil Engineering for the development of the national economy and improve the living standards of the people provided important material and technological foundation for the revitalization of many industries played a catalytic role in the construction of fixed assets is a basic production process, the construction and real estate in many countries and regions become a pillar of the economyAncient Civil Engineering has a long time span, roughly 500 years before Christ from the original date in civil engineering activities to the 16 century Italian Renaissance, resulting in the rapid development of the Civil Engineering on the road today, and has experienced more than 2,000 years. During this period, due to the development of scientific theories and slow, there is no breakthrough in civil engineering from 17 pages to 40 years in the 20th century end of the Second World War 300 years, foreign construction made great strides. Civil Engineering has entered a phase of quantitative analysis. Some theoretical development, the emergence of new materials, new tools of invention, the Civil Engineering Science is perfection and maturity. In modern times, after the end of World War II, many countries economic takeoff, the increasing advances of modern science, so as to provide a powerful impetus to further development and material basis. People's living conditions continue to improve, more and more comfortable living environment for the inevitable in the circumstances, the construction of development directly to the Civil Engineering development.

农业技术经济杂志的英文翻译

发展生态农业能够保护和改善生态环境，防止环境污染，维护生态平衡，提高农产品的安全。农业和农村经济的常规发展为持续发展，把环境建设同经济发展紧密结合起来，协调了经济发展与环境之间、资源利用与保护之间关系，形成生态和经济的协调发展，既保护了生态环境，又获得了较高的经济效益，实现农业的可持续发展。 The development ecological agriculture can protect and the improvement ecological environment, prevented the environmental pollution, maintains the ecological equilibrium, enhances the agricultural product the security. Agricultural and the rural economy conventional development for continues to develop, constructs the environment same economical development in close integration with, coordinated between between the economical development and the environment, the resources use and the protection relates, forms the ecology and the economical coordinated development, both has protected the ecological environment, and has obtained the higher economic efficiency, realizes the agricultural sustainable development.我国地域辽阔，各地自然条件、资源基础、经济和社会发展水平差异较大，生态农业需要充分汲取我国传统农业精华，结合现代科学技术，各地域依据社会需要与当地实际协调发展的原则，建立多种可持续优化模式，合理组织生产，较好地发挥地域优势。Our country vast in territory, each place natural condition, the resource base, the economical and the level of development of society difference is bigger, the ecological agriculture needs fully to derive our country tradition agriculture essence, the union modern science and technology, various regions need and the locality actual coordinated development principle based on the society, establishes the many kinds of sustainable optimized pattern, the reasonable organization produces, displays the region superiority well.

农业英文是：geoponics、farming、agriculture

1、geoponics

读音：英 [ˌdʒiːə'pɒnɪks]  美 [ˌdʒiːə'pɒnɪks]

n. 农业；乡间

Geoponics and agroecology are two independent disciplines with close relations.

耕作学与农业生态学是两门独立的学科,且彼此间密切相关。

2、farming

读音：英 ['fɑːmɪŋ]  美 ['fɑːrmɪŋ]

n. 农业；农耕；养殖；（租税等的）包收

动词farm的现在分词.

Farming is still the mainstay of this country.

农业仍是这个国家的主要依靠。

3、agriculture

读音：英 ['æɡrɪkʌltʃə(r)]  美 ['æɡrɪkʌltʃər]

n. 农业；农学；农艺

I know nothing about agriculture.

我对农业一窍不通。

扩展资料：

近义词

1、agribusiness

读音：英 ['æɡrɪbɪznəs]   美 ['æɡrɪbɪznəs]

n. 农业综合企业

To achieve such a change, however, India would need to shift its focus from peasant farming to agribusiness and encourage private capital to move from urban to rural areas.

然而，为实现这一转变，印度必需把重点从农耕经济转移到农业综合企业，鼓励私有资本从城市转移到农村。

2、husbandry

读音：英 ['hʌzbəndri] 美 ['hʌzbəndri]

n. 农事；耕作；农牧业；节约（资源）

The development of agriculture and animal husbandry has been given top priority in the Tibetan economy.

发展农牧业在西藏的经济生活中处于最重要的地位。

技术的英文是technology。

technology

音标：英[tekˈnɒlədʒi]    美[tekˈnɑːlədʒi]

详细释义：

n. 技术; 科技; 工艺; 工程技术; 技术学; 工艺学; 技术型机器(或设备);

短语搭配：

例句：

1、Britain is behind Japan in developing modern technologies.

在发展现代技术方面英国落后于日本。

2、He majors in engine technology in this college.

他在这所学院主修发动机工艺。

3、They are studying chemical technology.

他们在研究化学工艺学。

近义词：technique

agriculture ['æɡrikʌltʃə] n. 农业；农艺，农学farming ['fɑ:miŋ] n. 农业，耕作v. 耕种；出租（farm的ing形式）agro- ['æɡrəu] pref. 表示“农业”；表示“土壤”geoponics [,dʒi（:）əu'pɔniks] n.[复数，动词用单数]农艺，农耕技术，农作学，农业学[参较 hydroponics]